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COPYRIGHT DEPOSn^ 



FRUIT-GROWING IN ARID REGIONS 



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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



FRUIT-GEOWINa 

IN 

ARID REGIONS 

AN ACCOUNT OF APPROVED FRUIT-GROWING PRACTICES 
IN THE INTER-MOUNTAIN COUNTRY OF THE WEST- 
ERN UNITED STATES, COMPRISING THE STATES OF 
COLORADO, MONTANA, IDAHO, UTAH, NEVADA, 
AND IN NORTHERN ARIZONA AND NEW 
MEXICO, WITH APPLICATIONS TO 
ADJACENT REGIONS 



BY 

WENDELL PADDOCK 

PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE IST THE COLORADO AGRICULTURAL 
COLLEGE AND EXPERIMENT STATION 

AND 

ORVILLE B. WHIPPLE 

FIELD HORTICULTURIST IN THE COLORADO AGRICULTURAL 
COLLEGE AND EXPERIMENT STATION 



Netn fork 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1910 

All rights reserved 



^^"^ 






Copyright, 1910, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1910. 



NoriDooti 53re28 

J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



©CI.A265217 



PREFACE 

This volume is the outgrowth of over eight years' ex- 
perience in inter-mountain horticulture. From the nature 
of our work, much time has been spent in orchards in the 
various districts, and Mr. Whipple, in the capacity of 
Field Agent in Horticulture, has been stationed for the 
past three years at Grand Junction, Colorado, the center 
of one of the most famous fruit sections in the Union. 
During this time the writers have become acquainted with 
the many problems that are of interest to the experienced 
orchardist and most perplexing to the novice, through per- 
sonal contact with fruit-growers and at horticultural 
short-courses as well as through correspondence. Arid 
horticulture is very different in many respects from that 
of the humid states, and a fruit-grower from the East has 
much to learn. But the majority of our fruit-growers had 
no experience in horticulture before coming West, and 
many of them had httle or no knowledge of country life. 
Such persons have everything to learn, and it is to them 
that this volume is especially addressed. Horticulture 
has only begun to be developed in the semi-arid West; 
consequently new settlers will continue to come to us for 
many years, and instruction in the elements of the art of 
horticulture will continue to be in demand. 



vi Preface 

The observing traveler is at once impressed with the 
inteUigence of the people who are engaging in fruit-grow- 
ing in the inter-mountain country. We find here people 
from all walks of Hfe, attracted by the advantages of 
climate or the possibihties of money-making in a pleasant 
and healthful occupation. One may meet in a day's ride 
among the orchards, former doctors, lawyers, teachers, 
preachers, merchants, farmers, and young men recently 
graduated from an eastern university or college. It is such 
persons that create a demand for horticultural information, 
and their letters to officers of the Experiment Stations, 
while direct and intelligent, often would require one to 
write a book in order to supply the information. We 
have endeavored to meet this demand in the following 
pages. 

The inter-mountain states include a vast territory, 
where a great number of different conditions exists, and 
inexperienced men are planting orchards in all parts of 
this region at the rate of many hundred acres a year. It is 
impossible to include everything of interest to the orchard- 
ist in a volume of this size; however, we hope to supply 
working information that will apply to the entire region; 
and in a general way this book should be of value wherever 
fruit is grown under irrigation. 

Several of the chapters have formed the basis of experi- 
ment station bulletins, and the substance of most of them 
has been given many times at horticultural short-courses. 
The articles on Insects and Insecticides have been adapted 
from the numerous writings of Professor C. P. Gillette, 
Entomologist of the Colorado Experiment Station. The 
discussion on Live-stock on the Fruit-farm was prepared 



Preface vii 

by Professor H. M. Cottrell, Superintendent of Farmers^ 
Institutes in Colorado. 

We are also indebted to other members of the College 
Faculty, for without their help and advice this work could 
scarcely have been completed. 

WENDELL PADDOCK. 
O. B. WHIPPLE. 
Agricultural College, 
Fort Collins, Colorado. 
June 15, 1909. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 



PAGES 



History and Development of the Fruit Industry . . 1-12 

Daniel Webster's Speech 2 

The Mormons ^ 

Colorado's Horticultural History ..... .6 

CHAPTER II 

Location, Exposure, Soils, and Windbreaks , . 13-27 

Altitude and Fruit-growing 13 

Eastern Slope Fruit Belt 13 

Canon Breezes and Frost 15 

Orchard Soils ...*...•... 16 

Marl 19 

Cement Soils 20 

Sinking Land 20 

Seepage 21 

Alkali vs. Free Water 22 

Soil Surveys • • . • .23 

Windbreaks . . . « ^^ 

CHAPTER III 

Preparation of Land for Planting .... 28-34 

Variation in Soils 28 

Land should be well Prepared 29 

Settling and Leveling 29 

Plowing .„„.....•• 32 

Subsoiling , 33 

ix 



Contents 



CHAPTER IV 

Planning and Planting the Orchard 
Varieties 

Selection of Trees . 
Care of Nursery Stock . 
Fillers .... 
Interplanting of Varieties 
When to Plant 
Methods of Planting 



PAGES 

35-52 
37 
37 
40 
46 
47 
48 
49 



CHAPTER V 

The Orchard Plant 53-65 

Spread and Growth of Roots 53 

Root Hairs 54 

Strength of Soil Solution 55 

The Stem 56 

Cambium 59 

Leaves 61 

CHAPTER VI 

Buds 66-79 

Branch-buds QQ 

Fruit-spurs 70 

Fruit-buds of Apple and Pear 71 

The Buds of Stone-fruits 73 

CHAPTER VII 

Pruning Young Trees 80-110 

Handling Young Trees 80 

Low-headed Trees Desirable 84 

Form of Tree 86 

Shaping the Newly Planted Tree ...... 88 

Yearling Trees are Best 90 

Second-year Pruning . . . . . . . .92 



Contents xi 

PAGES 

Third-year Pruning . 93 

Pruning Bearing Trees 99 

Pruning Young Peach Trees ....... 102 

Training the Peach Tree 104 

CHAPTER VIII 

Pruning Mature Trees 111-146 

The Justification of Pruning Ill 

Physiology of Pruning . .112 

Summer Pruning 112 

The Healing of Wounds 113 

System of Pruning influenced by Bearing Habit . . . 113 

Pruning Tools 115 

Pruning the Apple - . 117 

Pruning the Apricot 123 

Pruning the Cherry 125 

Pruning the Peach 127 

Pruning the Pear 133 

Pruning the Quince ........ 138 

Pruning the Plum . 139 

Thinning Fruit 141 

CHAPTER IX 

Top-working Eruit Trees 147-172 

Top-working Desirable 147 

Limits of Grafting 148 

Top-working Old Trees 150 

Cleft-grafting 154 

Kerf-grafting 155 

Bark-grafting . . .155 

Terminal-grafting 155 

Season for Grafting 158 

Cion Wood 160 

Growing the Top 162 

Top- working Young Trees . 165 



xii Contents 

CHAPTER X 

PAGES 

The Propagation of Orchard Trees .... 173-178 

Apple Seedlings . .173 

Dwarf Apples 174 

Northern Spy Roots and Woolly Aphis .... 174 

How Root Grafts are Made 175 

Budding 175 

Dwarf Pears ....'».... 176 

Budding Peach Trees 177 

The Apricot 178 

The Plums 178 

The Cherries 178 

CHAPTER XI 

The Tillage of Orchards ..,.., 179-183 

Clean Culture can be Overdone 179 

The Benefits of Tillage 181 

Inter-mountain Practice 182 

Irrigation and Clean Cultivation soon compacts Soil . . 183 

Importance of Organic Matter 183 

CHAPTER XII 

Fertilizers and Shade-crops . . . . . . 184-202 

Soil Fertility not Inexhaustible 184 

Elements of Plant-food 187 

Fertilizer Experiment with Potatoes 189 

Benefits of Green Manures 190 

Cover-crops 190 

Shade-crops 190 

Decaying Vegetable Matter 191 

Moisture 191 

Puddling 192 

Earthworms ......... . 192 

Porous Soils 192 

Freezing Dry , 193 



Contents xiii 

PAGES 

The Decay of Green Manures 194 

Humus 196 

Leguminous Crops 197 

Soil Inoculation 198 

Kinds of Crops to use for Shade-crops 199 

When to Plant . . . , . . . . .199 



CHAPTER XIII 

Irrigation in Orchards 203-211 

No Definite Rule can be Given 203 

Irrigation during Blooming Period 203 

Excessive Irrigation in Midsummer 203 

Too Much Water causes Winter-killing .... 204 

Film Moisture 205 

Free Water 205 

Condition of Surface Soil not a Guide for Irrigation . . 206 

Sandy Soil requires Different Treatment from Heavy Land . 206 

Deep Furrows for Heavy Soils 207 

Fall Plowing Desirable 209 

Late Fall Irrigation . . . . . . . . 211 



CHAPTER XIV 

Other Phases of Orchard Management , . , 212-223 

Horses 213 

Baby Beef 214 

Dairying well adapted to High-priced Land . . . .216 

Feed and Care of Cows 217 

Hogs 218 

Poultry 220 

Work plentiful in an Orchard Country 221 

Kinds of Crops to Grow . . 221 

The Canning Industry 223 

Small-fruits in the Orchard 223 



xiv Contents 

CHAPTER XV 

PAGES 

Varieties 224-249 

Few Standard Varieties better than Many . • . . . 226 

Testing New Kinds 226 

Well-known Varieties best to Plant ..... 226 

Adaptation of Varieties to Soils 227 

Potato Soil 227 

Adaptation depends upon Character of Growth of Variety . 228 

Early Varieties profitable for Local Markets . . . 234 

Hardy Varieties for High Altitudes 234 

Description of Varieties 235 

Apricots not so adaptable to a Variety of Soils as the Peach 238 

Cherries do best on Dry, Loamy Land 240 

Four Groups of Sweet Cherries 241 

Two Classes of Sour Cherries 241 

Peaches are Cosmopolitan 242 

Pear Trees not particular as to Soils 244 

Plums do well on Many Kinds of Soil 246 

CHAPTER XVI 

Picking the Fruit 250-266 

Picking Apples 257 

Picking Apricots 260 

Picking Cherries 260 

Picking Peaches 261 

Picking Pears 262 

Picking Plums 266 

CHAPTER XVII 

Packing and Grading the Fruit 267-301 

Packing and Grading Fruit . . • 267 

Association Management 269 

Packing Appliances 273 

Prices of Box Materials 275 

The Apple Box 278 

Grading and Packing Apples 278 

The Different Kinds of Packs 281 



Contents xv 

PAGES 

Wrapping Apples .... = .... 282 

Packing Apricots 283 

Packing Clierries 284 

Packing Peaches 286 

Packing Table 289 

Packing Plums 292 

Grading and Packing Pears 292 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Marketing Pruit 302-323 

Cooperation in Marketing Necessary 303 

Packing 307 

The Hood River Plan . . 307 

F.O.B. Sales the Rule 311 

Express Shipments 312 

An Association benefits the Entire Community . . .312 

District Organization 315 

By-laws . 316 

CHAPTER XIX 
Prost Injuries, Secondary Bloom, and Prost Protection 324-354 
Various Conditions conducive to Winter Injury . . .324 

Prost Russet 325 

Frost Blister 326 

Injury to Buds or Bloom 326 

Injury to Pruit 328 

Second-crop Bloom 330 

Prost Protection . 334 

CHAPTER XX 
Orchard Pests and their Control ... * 355-390 

Biting Insects . . 357 

Sucking Insects 358 

Orchard Insects and Diseases described and Remedies Sug- 
gested 359 

Good Spraying Equipment Necessary . . . • • 382 

Formulas ^^^ 

Index . . . c , ^^^ 



k 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIG. 
1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 

5. 
6. 

7. 



9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
18. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
]9. 

20. 

21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 

25. 



An Elberta Peach Orchard near Ogden, Utah 

Leveling with Water ..... 

Hexagonal Plan of Planting .... 

Method of Marking Land for Planting . 

A Root-hair. (After Stevens) 

A Cross-section of a Stem. (After Stevens) 

Cross-section of a Leaf. (After Stevens) 

Pear Spur on Left and Apple Spur on Right, showing Scars 

produced by Death of Part of Spur . 
Once a Fruit-spur ...... 

Opening Flower-buds on One-year-old Apple Spurs 

Missouri (Pippin) showing Axillary Flower-buds 

Mature Jonathan Apples from Axillary Buds 

Axillary Flower Clusters of Duchess Pear 

Flower-buds of Peach . 

Flower-buds of Apricot 

Flower-buds of Sweet Cherry 

Flower-buds of Sour Cherry . 

Flower-buds of Domestica Plum . 

Low-headed Trees, with Ascending Branches. Paonia 

Colorado 

Yearling Whip, properly Headed-back when planted 

improperly trained and Annual Pruning neglected , 
Shaping the Top .... 
Shaping the Top .... 

Failure 

Neglected 

Young Apple Trees well Headed-in 



but 



PAGE 

7. 
31 
43 
60 
65 
58 
62 



69 
69 
69 
70 
75 
76 
77 
78 
78 

85 

92 
94 
95 
Q6 
97 
101 



xviii List of Illustrations 

FIG. PAGE 

26. Low-headed Peach Trees, Mesilla Park, New Mexico. 

Photo by Garcia 103 

27. Poor Head on Young Peach. The Result of Pruning for 

Fruit ' ... 104 

28. The Same as Fig. 27 after One Season's Growth . . . 105 

29. Two-year-old Peach Tree well Pruned 106 

30. Same as 29 before Pruning .106 

31. Same Tree as 29, but One Year later 107 

32. Pruning Saw . . 115 

33. Pruning Saw 116 

34. Pruning Shears 116 

35. Heavy Pruning Shears . . 117 

36. Exaggerated Type of Open-centered Tree . . . ,118 

37. Jonathan, well Headed-in 119 

38. Jonathan, growing Long, Weak Branches, due to Lack of 

proper Pruning 120 

39. Ben Davis, Fifteen Years Old and ruined. Such Loss may 

be avoided by proper Pruning 121 

40. White Pearmain, showing Type of Growth .... 122 

41. Well-trained Peach Tree, Seven Years Old. Palisade, 

Colorado 128 

42. Peach Tree, Nine Years Old, well Trained. Note how nearly 

it conforms to a Right Angle ...... 129 

43. Peach Tree of Same Age as Fig. 42. Note the Long Limbs 

with Fruiting-wood only in the Top . . . .131 

44. Peach Tree rejuvenated by Cutting-back, or "Dehorning," 

the Large Limbs , . 132 

45. Improper Pruning of Neglected Pear Tree .... 134 

46. Same as Fig. 45, after One Season's Gro^\^h .... 136 

47. Longitudinal Section through a Graft, showing that Union 

takes Place only around Outer Edge .... 149 

48. Transcendent Crab grafted to Winesap . . . .151 

49. The Same as 48, One Year later 152 

50. The Same as 48, Two Years later. Grafts mostly Blown out 153 

51. Showing Pear Tree Grafted in Small Limbs. The Large 

Lower Limbs were Removed later 169 

52. Good and Poor Cion Wood. Good on the Right . . .161 



List of Illustrations xix 

FIG. PAGE 

53. A Well-formed Grafted Tree 164 

54. The Operation of Whip-grafting 167 

55. The Operation of Budding 170 

56. Shade-crop of Clover 201 

57. Heavy Land well Furrowed 208 

58. Sandy Soil well Furrowed. Grand Junction, Colorado . 209 

59. Cantaloupes Growing in Young Orchard .... 222 

60. Gathering Newtown Pippins. Medford, Oregon . . . 225 

61. A Newtown Pippin Orchard. North Yakima, Washington . 230 

62. An Esopus (Spitzenburg) Orchard. Hood River, Oregon . 231 

63. A Mcintosh Orchard, Montana 233 

64. An Idaho Prune Orchard. Boise, Idaho .... 246 

65. The Bowman Picking Bag 254 

66. The Excelsior Picking Receptacle 254 

67. A Good Type of Ladder 255 

68. The Pole Ladder: 256 

69. A Wheel Ladder . 256 

70. A Packing Scene 263 

71. Pear on Right Ready to pick ; the Other too Green . . 264 

72. Box Press 274 

73. A Typical Box Label for Extra Fancy Fruit ; also illustrates 

the 2-2 Pack 277 

74. The 2-3 Pack 279 

75. The 3-3 Pack 280 

7a Straight Pack 281 

77. Box of Apples Ready for Shipment, showing Proper Bulge of 

Top and Bottom 282 

78. Cherry Packages (Courtesy of "Better Fruit") . . .285 

79. Peaches, Q-Q Straight Pack 286 

80. Peaches, 3-3 Pack 287 

81. Peaches, 4-5 Pack 288 

82. Peaches, 2-3 Pack 290 

83. Pears : «, 2-3 Pack ; &, 3-3 Pack ; c, 3-4 Pack . . .293 

84. Pears, Five-tier Pack of Six-tier Grade 294 

85. Side View of 84 ... 295 

86. Wrapping Pears. First, place Pear in One Corner of Paper ; 

a Twist to the Right and a Cone-shaped Package results 297 



XX List of Illustrations 

FIG, PAGE 

87. Frost Russet of Apple ........ 326 

88. Frost Blister of Apple Leaf 327 

89. Abnormal Pears, the Result of Injury by Frost . . . 328 

90. Longitudinal Section of Frozen Bartlett Pear . . . 329 

91. Anjou Pears. The Smaller injured by Frost when Young . 330 

92. Mature Chenango from Second-crop Bloom . . . .331 

93. From Second-crop Bloom arising from Large Limbs or Tree 

Trunks 332 

94. Various Types of Orchard Heaters . • . . . .341 

95. Method of distributing Oil . . . . . . .345 

96. Orchard Heaters in Position 349 

97. An almost Perfect Pack of Apples, by A. I. Mason, Hood 

River, Oregon 371 

98. Three-year-old Elberta Peach Trees at Farmington, New- 

Mexico 383 



FRUIT-GROWING IN ARID REGIONS 



FEUIT-GROWING IN ARID 
REGIONS 



CHAPTER I 

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE FRUIT IN- 
DUSTRY IN THE ARID AND SEMIARID WEST 

Twenty years ago the idea that the inter-mountain 
states would ever become important in fruit-growing was 
scarcely thought of. The romance of mining and of 
cattle grazing was then at its height and but little thought 
was given to developing the agricultural resources. Fruit- 
growing is one of the highest types of intensified farming, 
so it is but natural that it is the last of the great resources 
of a new region to be developed. The same has been true 
of all new countries. 

The idea prevailed in the early days that the semiarid 
part of the United States was destined to remain an un- 
fertile and an undeveloped tract; and public sentiment 
is no small factor in the development of a country. Daniel 
Webster's speech in 1838, in which he characterized the 
entire region, beginning with the great plains and extend- 
ing westward to the Pacific Ocean, as a ''vast worthless 
area" could not be soon forgotten. Forty years later the 
horticultural side of the question was still being debated. 
W. G. M. Stone of Denver, writing in 1892, discusses this 
incident in the following apt words : — 
fe 1 



2 Fruit-Growing in Arid Regions 

"It was in 1838. A measure was before Congress to 
establish a post-route from Independence, Mo., to the 
mouth of the Columbia River. During the discussion, 
Daniel Webster, on the floor of the Senate, opposed it and 
closed his speech as follows : ' What do we want with this 
vast worthless area? this region of savages and wild beasts, 
of deserts, shifting sands and whirlwinds of dust, of cactus 
and prairie dogs? To what use could we ever hope to put 
these great deserts, or those endless mountain ranges, 
impregnable, and covered to their very base with eternal 
snow? What can we ever hope to do with the western 
coast, a coast of 3000 miles, rockbound, cheerless, unin- 
viting, and not a harbor on it? What use have we for 
such a country? Mr. President, I will never vote one 
cent from the public treasury to place the Pacific Coast 
one inch nearer to Boston than it now is ! ' To stand here 
in this city of 150,000 people, to see these grand structures 
for business, these palatial homes, and think of the countless 
interests of trade and far-reaching enterprises; when we 
survey the state at large with its cities and towns, its 
growth and energy; and we take a still broader view and 
think of five great railways crossing the continent to this 
same rockbound coast, 'cheerless and uninviting,' and 
when we see these ' impregnable ' mountains traversed with 
railways and yielding their ready millions of gold and 
silver, and find them also stored with coal and iron and 
marble, we wonder how Daniel Webster could have 
uttered such words as the above. Ten years later there 
was a change — the treaty of Hidalgo ; and ten years after 
that the discovery of gold in the 'shifting sands' of this 
/worthless' region. Had all possessed the same wisdom 
of foresight as Webster, this country had never reached 
'Beyond the Mississippi,' and the Indian, the buffalo, 
the cactus and prairie dog would be in full and undisputed 
possession of it, and the Hudson Bay Company would be 
buying skins at Vancouver. Had every one been Web- 
sterian in his range of adventure, 'Pike's Peak,' the Unioii 



History and Development of the Fruit Industry 3 

Pacific, with all these Rocky Mountain railways, these 
cities, including San Francisco and the entire Pacific 
Coast, would to-day be with the unawakened atoms still 
floating in the primordial abyss of being. While Web- 
ster, with his giant strength, was holding this worthless 
region away from Boston, the Carsons, and Fremonts, and 
Gregories, and Greeleys, and their thousands of assistants 
were breaking his hold; and while at that time these 
mountains were sixty to seventy days from Boston, they 
are now within about as many hours, and becoming nearer 
and nearer with the opening of each succeeding decade. 
Humanity is stronger than any one man; enterprise more 
powerful than conservatism; exploration and discovery 
more potent than apathy and inanition. 

'^ Daniel Webster sleeps at Marshfield; his words finger 
as curios. The energy and genius of his fellows and their 
posterity are converting these 'deserts' into gardens, 
and causing these mountains to pour their long-hidden 
treasures into the lap of the world. Strong cords of 
interest and fellowship now bind us to the Atlantic and 
the Atlantic to us, and Denver stands to-day in the midst 
of those cheerless realms of fancy pictured by the great 
statesman to attest the wondrous change on this half 
of our continent within a lifetime, and the memory of 
thousands. 

''For fifty years the new states have one by one passed 
through a peculiar period of 'We can't raise fruit.' Illi- 
nois had it; and Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota. It is 
like measles and chicken pox, 'must go round.' Colorado 
caught it when a mere infant and had it very hard. 'We 
can't raise fruit ' was impressed on almost every mind 
from the very first. 'Too high! ' 'too dry!' 'too cool o' 
nights!' too this! and too that! so that Fruit Culture was 
not admitted for many years, and when a few men less con- 
servative than rash asked to enter apples at the annual 
exhibits, as Colorado Grown, they were subjects of legiti- 
mate suspicion as lunatics or knaves, — just as though 



4 Fruit-grovjing in Arid Regions 

they had 'salted' their gardens from a barrel of Ben 
Davis or Greenings from beyond the Mississippi. The 
stranger just arrived and full of the dreariness of the plains 
may smile at the mere suggestion of fruit in Colorado, 
and may ask, in the slang of the day, 'What are you 
giving us?' We shall offer neither bananas nor oranges, 
pomegranates nor figs, but shall beg to place before the 
mind's eye every kind of fruit grown in the belt north of 
Mason and Dixon's line." 

The prevailing opinion that fruit could not be grown 
in the arid regions was fostered locally by the disastrous 
failures that resulted from many of the early attempts at 
tree-growing. But it is a difficult task for a man who 
may have been a successful farmer in the East to work 
out, unaided, the principles of irrigation. Failure often 
stimulates desire. So with the pioneers, they seem not 
to have been disheartened, and the repeated attempts 
finally proved to the world that fruit and forest trees can 
be grown. It surely took a man of courage in the face 
of almost universal opposition and no small amount of 
ridicule, to make the round trip from the Rocky Moun- 
tains by wagon to Iowa for a load of nursery stock. The 
general trend of public opinion w^as that this region was 
to be devoted forever to mining, and to some extent, 
to grazing. Anything Hke the present development in 
general agriculture was not dreamed of; and that it 
should ever become noted for the production of fine fruit 
is not yet reahzed by a majority of the people. 

The Mormons were the first to grow fruit in the arid 
section. The history of their immigration to Utah, the 
hardships and privations they endured, are so well known 
that it would be out of place to recount them here, even 



History and Development of the Fruit Industry 5 

if space would permit. In regard to their early efforts 
in fruit-growing, Mr. Anthon H. Lund, Historian of the 
Latter Day Saints, communicates the following: — 

''In a General Epistle of the Church, dated 1847, to 
the Saints throughout the earth and signed by Prest. 
Brigham Young, the following paragraph appears: 
'To all Saints, we would say, come immediately and 
prepare to go West, bringing with you all kinds of choice 
seeds, of grain, vegetables, fruits, shrubbery, trees, and 
vines, — everything that will please the eye, gladden the 
heart, or cheer the soul of man, that grows upon the 
face of the whole earth; also, the best stock of beast, 
bird, and fowl of every kind that shall tend to promote 
the comfort, health, happiness, or prosperity of any 
people.' 

"On the 23d of July, 1847, the advanced company of 
the Pioneers camped on what was subsequently known 
as the 8th Ward Square of Salt Lake City. Apostle 
Orson Pratt called the camp together, dedicated the land 
to the Lord, invoked his blessings on the seeds about to 
be planted. 'What,' in the language of Apostle Wood- 
ruff, ' was to hinder the house of God from being estab- 
Hshed in the mountains, and exalted above the hills, 
and these valleys from being converted into orchards, 
vineyards, and fruitful fields.' The first successful plow- 
ing was done by Wm. Carter, and a company commenced 
the work of getting out water for irrigation. 

"'By August the 26th,' the historian records, 'the 
colonists had laid off a fort, built 27 log houses, plowed 
and planted 84 acres with corn, potatoes, beans, buck- 
wheat, turnips, etc' Among the 'seeds' blessed by 
Elder Pratt and afterwards planted were peach, apple, 
pear, plum and other fruits. In due course of time these 
bore fruits, to the great joy of the people. Nor were 
shade trees lost sight of, for quarts of locust seeds were 
also put into the ground by the pioneers, and at this 



6. Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

writing many of the pioneer shade trees can be seen in 
different parts of the city. 

'' During the year 1856 the Desert Agricultural and 
Manufacturing Society was organized for promoting the 
introduction, improvement, and multiplication of every- 
thing needful in land culture, stock-raising, manufactures, 
etc., suited to our varied conditions. Fruit-raising formed 
one of its principal considerations and industries. 

'^It has always been our custom to plant fruit and shade 
trees in the formation of new settlements at the seasonable 
time of the year. Our cities and towns and homes all 
over the inter-mountain region, including the neighboring 
states, Canada and Mexico, are embowered in and sur- 
rounded with fruit and shade trees, flowers, etc. 

'^ Bancroft, the historian, states that in 1875 Southern 
Utah produced 544 acres of grapes, the total yield being 
about 1700 tons; and that the value of Utah's orchard 
products in 1883, including apples, — of which there 
were at least 90 varieties, — pears, plums, quinces, cherries, 
peaches, currants, and berries of many descriptions, was 
estimated at $157,000. The yield of apples was about 
90 bushels to the acre, of pears 75, of peaches 120, of 
plums 165, and cherries 75." (Fig. 1.) 

Colorado was probably the next to undertake fruit- 
growing, although it was not until fifteen years after the 
settlement at Salt Lake that the first attempt was made. 
The experience of the Mormons seems not to have reached 
the world at large, as we find that the first attempts at 
tree -planting near Denver were generally regarded as 
being impracticable. Fortunately, Colorado's early hor- 
ticultural history has been recorded. Mr. Stanger, the 
author, is a pioneer, and as editor of the Colorado Farmer 
had much to do in finally impressing the people with the 
fact that fruit can be grown in tbe state. The following 



History and Development of the Fruit Industry 7 

extract from Mr. Stanger is taken from the Report of 
the Colorado State Board of Horticulture for 1903: — 

''In the early spring of 1862, Henry Lee, of Denver, 
sent from Iowa City to his brother, William Lee, then, 
as now, living on his farm in Jefferson County, four miles 




Fig. 1. — An Elberta Peach Orchard, near Ogden, Utah. 

east of Golden, 125 apple, peach, pear and plum stock; 
they came to Denver by express, and cost Mr. ,Lee $30. 
This nursery stock was planted on a little island in the 
Clear Creek bottoms, the spring they were sent. March 
24, 1864, William Lee arrived in Denver with a mule 
team, bringing 6000 one- and two-year-old apple stocks, 
also 500 stocks each of peach, pear, plum and cherry, 
which he planted in a nursery on his island farm; then 
no one thought of planting anything on the uplands. 

''May 27, 1864, a great flood in Clear Creek destroyed 
this nursery, and also all that was left of the 125 trees 



8 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

saved from a fire set by a careless hand to destroy weeds. 
Only about 150 of the 6000 trees were rescued from the 
debris left from the flood, and in 1866 these were set out 
in an orchard on Mr. Lee's upland farm. Many of these 
trees are living yet, and yearly yield crops of golden fruit, 
and look as if they will continue to do so for many years 
to come. 

''In the spring of 1863, Hirman C. Wolf, of Denver, 
received by express a box packed with different kinds 
of fruit stock, principally berries and some apple, pear, 
and plum, for which package he paid $62. Owing to 
poor condition and lack of knowledge to handle the stock, 
they failed to grow. 

''September 24, 1863, Mr. Wolf left Denver with a 
four-horse team and drove to Des Moines, Iowa, about 
nine hundred miles, for the purpose of bringing to this 
territory a full load of apple, pear, plum, cherry, and berry 
stock. Loading there, he, on the 3d day of November, 
started for Denver and arrived here on the 16th day of 
December, 1863. The stock he bought was buried, 
and in the spring of 1864 was set out in orchard, prin- 
cipally in the Clear Creek bottoms, but some on the 
uplands of Mr. Wolf's farm one mile south of Arvada, 
in Jefferson County. 

"The great flood in Clear Creek in 1864 destroyed 
nearly all of the orchard planted in the bottom, and the 
lack of irrigation caused that planted on the uplands to 
perish. None of the trees of this costly experiment of 
Mr. Wolf's lives to-day, and it is only a reminiscence. 

"In 1870, Mr. J. W. Cook, of Ralston Creek, Jefferson 
County, brought from Illinois a lot of orchard, berry, and 
grape stock, and set them out on his farm in that valley. 
Mr. Cook was a practical nurseryman in IHinois, but 
failed to succeed in Colorado with Illinois methods of 
tree culture. He was an enthusiast and somewhat 
erratic, but he did make a success of his orchard and 
vineyard, and taught us many a profitable lesson. He 



History and Development of the Fruit Industry 9 

has been dead many years, but neither he nor his enthu- 
siastic endeavors to impress all with whom he came in 
contact as to the possibilities of Colorado for fruit-raising 
are forgotten. 

'' Henry Lee, in 1870, brought from Iowa fifteen thousand 
nursery stock and sold these from his place of business 
in Denver to many customers, most notable of whom are 
David Brothers, Mart L. Everett, Joseph Morris, Wilson 
Perrin, and others, principally located on Wheat Ridge, 
a suburb of this city. Many of these trees are living 
to-day and yearly produce crops of apples. 

"As nearly correct as can at this time be positively 
determined, the late Wilson Perrin started in 1869 or 
1870 the first nursery in the territory of Colorado on his 
farm on Wheat Ridge, four miles west of Denver. His 
example was soon followed by others, notably H. G. 
Wolfe, of Denver, and G. W. Webster, of Longmont, 
Boulder County, Colorado, and J. W. Cook, and also, about 
the same time, nursery stock was set out in the Union 
colony at Greeley, Weld County. And here permit me 
to digress and read to you part of a private and char- 
acteristic letter from the Hon. J. Max Clark, in reply to 
an inquiry of mine for facts on fruit-raising in the Union 
colony. 

''Mr. Daniel Stanley, a settler in Boulder County, in 
1865, brought by mule team from Iowa a lot of orchard 
stock and sold them to his neighbors, notably of whom 
were G. W. Webster and J. W. Goss, of Hygiene, Colorado. 
I here incorporate into this address an extract from a letter 
of a late date from the latter gentleman. He says, writ- 
ing of Stanley's venture: 'I bought six out of this lot 
and set them out in 1866. I paid for six trees, $30. 
Four of those six trees are alive to-day, and have been 
bearing since about the fourth year after setting out. 
Two of them are yellow sweets (I do not know the name), 
one is Red Astrachan, and the other is a winter variety, 
something like the Ben Davis, but better in flavor.' 



10 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

"In 1870 Mr. G. W. Webster planted a considerable 
orchard, the trees being brought from California, and for 
years was an ardent and persistent advocate of the possi- 
bihties of Colorado for fruit-growing, and was one of the 
first, with William Lee and J. W. Cook, to exhibit home- 
grown orchard-fruits at the yearly fairs of the agricultural 
association of Colorado. Others there were in northern 
Colorado who planted about this time orchard-fruits, 
but who, from modesty or other reasons, kept their light 
under a bushel, and I have not been able to bring them 
to the light of history. 

''In 1864 or 1865 Mr. Jesse Frazier, of Florence, Fre- 
mont County, Colorado, brought from Missouri, by team, 
a quantity of different varieties of orchard-fruit stock, 
and set them out on his farm at that place. In the files 
of the Colorado Farmer is a letter to me, giving a full 
history of this venture of Mr. Frazier's; but these files 
are not now accessible. This nursery and orchard was 
the nucleus from which has sprung the grand achieve- 
ments of the orchardists of the Arkansas Valley. His 
example was followed by Mr. Helm and others. I have 
been disappointed in obtaining more definite information 
of Mr. Frazier's orchard, but the honor is to him for being 
the pioneer orchardist of this grand fruit-growing section 
of our state. 

''So far as I have been able to definitely ascertain, the 
above-mentioned efforts were the beginning of planting 
of orchards and nurseries in Colorado. In 1874, 1875, and 
1876 strenuous endeavors were made through the columns 
of the Colorado Farm,er to arouse an interest in this branch 
of agricultural industry, and the results were favorable. 
Rarely were there heard any wails from the disapproving 
Jeremiahs. These prophets no longer had any honor in 
the land; pessimists there were, but many more opti- 
mists could be found. The chief kick was, it would not 
pay. Nurseries were planted, and they prospered — 
some more, some less." 



History and Development of the Fruit Industry 11 

The history of fruit-growing in the various other parts 
^f the West from the early sixties is much the same. 
In most cases it has meant hardship and the expenditure 
of much time and money. Gradually, orchards became 
established in a few localities, and as travel increased, the 
fact that fruit could be grown in the mountain regions 
became common knowledge. 

Commercial fruit-growing in the arid region is of very 
recent date; in fact, the first important shipments of fruit 
to points outside were made by the Fruit Growers' As- 
sociation of Grand Junction, Colorado, in 1897. Since 
this time development has 'been rapid. There are now 
many thousands of acres planted to orchards, and the 
available territory is being constantly increased by the 
construction of new irrigation projects. In response to 
the unprecedented demand for land, not only are the new 
lands being developed, but the large ranches are being 
divided. Thus history repeats itself, as it is well known 
that irrigated countries are the most densely populated 
and that they average the smallest farms in the world. 
This is due largely, if not entirely, to the fact that the water 
supply being under control, each acre may be made to 
produce a maximum crop. It has been estimated that 
one acre of good irrigated land, inteUigently cultivated, 
will produce a far better living for a man and his family 
than can be purchased by 60 per cent of the average wage 
earning of the American factory hand. 

Irrigation divides and subdivides lands into small home 
tracts. The best examples of communities of small 
farms in the United States are to be seen in various parts 
of California. Here may be found collections of farms 



12 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

of a few acres in extent, and each self-supporting and in 
many instances yielding the owner a good income. These 
communities often extend over hundreds of acres, and yet 
the homes are so close together as to suggest to the traveler 
that he is passing through the suburbs of a large city. 

This centralizing movement has already begun in the 
Rocky Mountain region, as one may see by visiting the 
more prosperous communities in any one of the several 
states, such as the Grand Valley in Colorado, the Cache 
Valley in Utah, the Willammette Valley in Oregon, the 
Yakima Valley in Washington the Payette Valley in Idaho, 
Bitter Root Valley in Montana, the Mesilla Valley in New 
Mexico, and many others. We may confidently expect to 
see this movement increase very rapidly in the near future, 
and the basis of this intensive farming will be the various 
horticultural products. 



CHAPTER II 

LOCATION, EXPOSURE, SOILS, AND WINDBREAKS 

The stranger who is about to locate in the inter-moun- 
tain states is often at a loss to know why all localities at 
the same altitude are not equally well adapted to fruit- 
growing. In a few favored localities peaches are success- 
fully grown at an altitude above 6000 feet. But on the 
eastern slope of the mountains no peaches are grown com- 
mercially without winter protection where the altitude 
is only 5000 feet. Occasionally crops of peaches are pro- 
duced in the lower Arkansas Valley, and in some favored 
localities on the plains where the elevation is much less. 
But in general, it may be said that, as a rule, fruit cannot 
be grown to any extent at an altitude much above 5000 
feet, and at this height much depends on the protection 
afforded by the mountains. 

Generally speaking, the fruit belt on the eastern slope 
of the Rocky Mountains, with the exception noted above, 
consists of an irregular area along the foothills not over 
ten miles in width. Beyond this distance the Hmits of 
the profitable production of tree-fruits at present are soon 
reached. Success is due to the protection afforded by the 
mountain range from drying winds and hailstorms, from 
cold in winter, and from late spring frosts. Small-fruits, 
which may be given winter protection, are grown in any 
situation where the common grains will mature. 

13 



14 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

The narrow valleys in the foothills are especially well 
adapted to fruit-growing, and some of these, where irri- 
gation is possible, support very prosperous communities. 
Such locations are especially favorable for growing fruit, 
not only because of the protection afforded by the hills, 
but because a breeze invariably blows down the canons 
at night and prevents many frosts. 

All orchards that are located away from the hills, even 
a short distance, should be protected on the west at 
least, and preferably also on the north as well, by a wind- 
break. 

The question of air drainage is always important, 
but cold air is not nearly so likely to become ^'pocketed" 
here as in the states farther to the east. However, low 
lands that are not affected by a night breeze should be 
looked upon with suspicion until they have been tried. 

In the inter-mountain region proper, the fruit lands 
are more confined to comparatively narrow valleys that 
are protected by high mountains on all sides and that 
are also likely to be favored by an evening breeze. This 
protection, producing warmer and milder and more 
stable winter weather, as well as less hability to late spring 
frosts, together with good soil and an abundant water 
supply, makes an ideal fruit region. But even in the 
famous peach-growing districts, frosty places are likely 
to occur. We have in mind two examples that illustrate 
this point. One famous locahty, which has never had 
an entire failure of the peach crop, and where vinifera 
grapes are also grown, is located at the mouth of a canon. 
The night breeze down the canon is almost a complete 
insurance against late spring frosts, for a distance of 



Location, Exposure, Soils, and Windbreaks 15 

one to four miles down the valley. Beyond this rather 
indefinite line, frosts occasionally occur. In another 
near-by equally favored neighborhood, two narrow valleys 
come together and form a broader valley. Below this 
point for several miles, and in the narrow valleys as well, 
the night breeze is almost certain insurance against 
damaging frosts in the late spring. But at the inter- 
section of the two valleys there is an abrupt mountain, 
and at its base there is a small area where the night breeze 
is not so noticeable. The orchards that are located here 
have been damaged by frost, while those both above and 
below have escaped. A dozen miles below this point, 
where the valley is much wider, a part of it has the 
reputation of being ^'frosty," while the adjacent mesas 
are much more favorable for fruit-growing. 

Soils 

The average soil of the arid region will grow good apples, 
but preference should always be given to the deep loams 
that have good natural drainage. These loams may be 
either clayey or sandy. Those that have a predominance 
of clay are perhaps the stronger and more lasting, but the 
red sandstone soils are much more easy to work and to 
keep in good tilth. Heavy adobe soils should be avoided, 
as they are difficult to till, and are also difficult to 
irrigate properly. Shallow soil should also be avoided, 
particularly for apple-growing, as the fertility is soon 
exhausted; but what is more important, the roots of the 
trees spread out near the surface, where they are exposed 
to the influence of sun, frost, wind, and drought. While 
it is true that many fairly good apple orchards are growing 



16 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

on this kind of land, it is difficult to keep them in good 
condition. 

The one thing that all semiarid soils is liable to be 
lacking in is organic matter. The climatic conditions 
are such that this important soil constituent is rapidly 
exhausted, and many orchards, particularly in the newer 
sections, are planted on desert land that was given no 
preparation except clearing and plowing a few furrows 
for the tree rows; the space between the rows was plowed 
as time permitted. These soils contained almost no 
vegetable matter when planted, and as clean cultivation 
is nearly the universal practice, but little has since been 
added. 

One of the more important actions of decaying vegetable 
matter is that it tends to prevent clayey soils from be- 
coming hard or puddled. It is a noticeable fact that 
toward the middle or latter part of the season, soil that 
appeared to be in good tilth in the spring gradually be- 
comes more and more compact, until finally, in the worst 
types, it becomes almost impervious to water. Measure- 
ments taken in such an orchard in August will illustrate 
this point. Water had been running in the furrows 
twenty-four hours. Two furrows between each two rows 
of trees were supposed to be sufficient to irrigate the 
orchard, allowing the water to run twenty-four hours. 
Measurements taken just after the water had been turned 
off showed that the moisture had penetrated to a depth 
of only eighteen inches, and twenty-eight inches laterally. 
It is obvious that trees should never be planted in such soil. 

There are a great many acres of such land planted to 
orchards, and it is safe to say that the most of it will sooner 



Location, Exposure, Soils, and Windbreaks 17 

or later be given over to the growing of alfalfa, grain, 
and similar crops. In its native state such land usually 
develops a rank growth of grease-wood {Sarcohatus 
vermiculatus) , and is commonly known as grease- wood 
land. In some regions there is a strong prejudice against 
using grease-wood land of any description for orchard 
purposes. However, this is certainly carrying a preju- 
dice too far, as many of our most valuable orchards 
are located on land which must come under this general 
description. Some of this land is sandy, and therefore 
is easy to work at all times. 

Sage-brush land, on the other hand, is usually good 
orchard land. It derives its name from the fact that in 
the wild state the characteristic vegetation is the so- 
called sage-brush (species of Artemisia). This shrub often 
grows over extensive areas, to the exclusion of all other 
woody plants, and on the higher mesas there is often a 
mixed growth of sage and cedar or pinon trees. This 
type of soil contains more sand and gravel, is not inclined 
to bake, irrigates easily, and consequently is one of the 
best types for orchard purposes. 

So-called volcanic ash soils are common in Idaho and 
other parts of the Northwest. The origin and com- 
position of such soils are imperfectly understood, but that 
they are well adapted to the growing of fruit has been 
clearly demonstrated. A. L. Knisely, formerly chemist 
of the Oregon Agricultural College, has the following 
to say in regard to them: ''There are certain regions, 
especially in eastern Oregon and adjacent states, in which 
part of the soil is known as volcanic ash soil. Soils which 
have this name are usually very uniform and are ex- 
c 



18 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

ceedingly fine; some of them are of considerable depth. 
The supposition is that their origin was from some vol- 
cano, probably in our region from Mt. Hood, which is 
almost an extinct volcano, though not quite, since at the 
present time considerable \ fumes of sulfur and steam 
are given out from the old crater. I might also add that 
this soil is exceedingly rich in mineral plant-food, es- 
pecially in potash and phosphoric acid, and seems to be 
almost inexhaustible when the supply of humus and 
nitrogen is kept up in it. 

''I beheve some think that some of this soil was thrown 
out as a dust from the volcano, others that it is disinte- 
grated lava. This may give you some idea as to what 
we term volcanic ash soil." 

Such soils, in common with others of the region, are de- 
ficient in vegetable matter, and consequently the nitrogen 
content is low. This feature may be corrected by the 
judicious use of shade-crops in the orchards and by grow- 
ing alfalfa before the land is planted to trees. 

Some instances occur where it is difficult to grow trees 
successfully because of excessive drainage. The soil is 
so loose in its make-up that water rapidly sinks and is 
soon lost. This character might be corrected, to some 
extent at least, by the addition of organic matter, which 
may be best supplied by plowing under green-manure. 

The Subsoil 

The subsoil is as important as the surface soil; this is 
a feature that is often overlooked and on which the uniniti- 
ated are often deceived. Mesa lands are often shallow, 
being underlaid with a layer of marl, gypsum, or shale. 



Location, Exposure, Soils, and Windbreaks 19 

Gypsum rarely occurs, while marl is common, but the cas- 
ual observer is not able to distinguish between the two. 
They are usually light-colored, chalky materials, and may 
occur in compact layers or mixed with earth. If the 
layer is compact and near the surface, naturally the soil 
is shallow, and so the plant-food is soon exhausted. While 
it is true that tree roots may penetrate these layers, the 
majority of them do not do so, but rather spread out 
laterally, thus producing a shallow-rooted system. Here 
the roots are exposed to sun and frost, and as the soil is 
easily dried out, constant care is necessary to keep the 
trees in good condition. It is on such soils that the so- 
called tuft blight, or rosette, of apple trees occurs, and 
where stunted trees with yellow foliage are often seen. 
Much of the fruit grown under these conditions is under- 
sized, and thus but comparatively small amounts can be 
marketed as first-class. ^ 

With proper attention to watering, cultivation, and 
fertilizing, much can be done to ameliorate such subsoil. 
In fact, a few growers are meeting with good success with 
orchards on this kind of land. A system of green-manur- 
ing, as set forth under the head of Shade-crops (Chapter 
XII), would be of special benefit under these conditions. 
It has also been found by experience that certain varieties 
of apples are much better adapted than others to such 
soils. 

The base of both gypsum and marl is lime; and it is 
thought by some investigators that the lime in the marl 
is very harmful to fruit trees. Whether this .is true 
in the case of marly soils of this region remains to be 
determined. 



20 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

Very rarely what are known locally as cement soils 
are found. For some reason, which is not known to the 
writers, such soils cannot be made to take enough water, 
by ordinary methods, to support trees and keep them in 
a vigorous condition. In a few instances orchards planted 
on this kind of soil have been relieved by digging several 
holes around each tree. A post-hole digger was used for 
the purpose, and the holes were filled with coarse manure. 
Water was then turned on, and the results indicate that 
the ground became well moistened. 

Sinking Land 

Land that settles when water is applied is known as 
sinking land. Some of the highest-priced peach orchards 
are located on such areas. To all outward appearances 
this land does not differ from that found in many other 
places. No hint as to this peculiar characteristic is gained 
from the general looks of it; but when irrigation is at- 
tempted, irregular patches, here and there, settle four or 
more feet, and in some cases cracks occur that may extend 
into the ground to a depth of fifteen feet. Such an oc- 
currence is surely alarming, to say the least, to the 
uninitiated. 

In one locality, where there is a small tract of such land, 
the owner attempted to establish an orchard, and planted 
the trees before the land had been irrigated. At the- first 
application of water, spots of land here and there began to 
sink, and deep cracks were formed. Of course it was im- 
possible to save the trees with the land in such condition, 
and the owner was obhged to give up. This type of land 
may usually be '^ settled " in one season if water is persist- 



Location, Exposure, Soils, and Windbreaks 21 

e itly applied. It often requires more time, however, and 
a^, the ^^setthng" is very uneven, much levehng is required 
ill order to fit the land for cultivation. The tendency to 
settle appears to be due to the porous condition of the 

s I L soil. 

Seepage 

The presence of an underlying stratum of shale within 
six feet of the surface should always be looked on with 
suspicion, and as a rule, such land should be avoided for 
orchard purposes. Wet or ''seeped" places are bound to 
occur as irrigation increases, for the reason that the water 
cannot escape except by evaporation. Consequently, the 
level of the water in the soil gradually rises until it comes 
to the surface. This may occur only in small spots which 
do no great amount of harm, but usually these areas grad- 
ually spread until from a few to many acres are involved. 
Large tracts of valuable orchards have been ruined in this 
way. 

An impervious layer of clay is also sometimes found 
which has the sanje effect as shale. There are other pecul- 
iar formations which tend to hold water. One which is 
more or less common occurs in soils that are rather deep 
and porous but not stratified. Water moves easily among 
the particles of such soils, but not to any extent laterally, 
as is the case where strata occur. Such soils are very 
likely to become seepy, especially when they occur at the 
lower levels, and when irrigation is practiced on the higher 
lands adjacent. 

According to surveys made by the Bureau of Soils of the 
United States Department of Agriculture, however, by far 
the greatest amount of damage by seepage in the fruit 



22 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

regions is due to the gradual rise of the level of water in 
the ground, and which is caused by excessive irrigation. 
Under these conditions any soil that is at all retentive 
of moisture may become wet. This is especially true of 
the low-lying land where the adjacent higher lands are 
irrigated. 

A rational use of water in irrigation will, of course, lessen 
the damage by seepage, and by conservative and intelli- 
gent drainage, practically all seeped lands should be re- 
claimed. Moreover, in the case of fruit regions, the high 
price which such land brings will usually make drainage 
profitable. 

Alkali 

In brief, alkali land is always seeped land, or at least the 
efflorescence of alkali upon the surface of the ground can 
occur only where the evaporation of water takes place. 
It is rare indeed that soil in the virgin state contains 
enough of these salts to be harmful to the ordinary orchard 
and farm crops. 

The name alkali is comprehensive, and includes the salts 
of sodium, potassium,'magnesium, and calcium. The so- 
called black alkah, sodium carbonate, occurs but rarely 
in the inter-mountain fruit regions. These substances are 
all more or less soluble, and may occur in any soil forma- 
tion. Originally they were constituents of certain rocks, 
particularly feldspars, from which they are dissolved. 
They are taken into solution and carried to the fields 
during irrigation,where they may be deposited by evapora- 
tion. But such deposits rarely occur in sufficient amounts 
to be harmful; therefore it may be safely assumed that 
alkali never collects in excessive quantities in cultivated 



Location, Exposure, Soils, and Windbreaks 23 

land where there is a free downward movement of water, 
and that the reclamation of alkah land, where black alkali 
is not present, is largely, if not entirely, a question of 
drainage. 

But little can be said here on the practice of drainage 
where irrigation is practiced, for the reason that an en- 
gineer should usually be consulted. The problems are 
quite different from those that are involved in the humid 
states. 

It has long been the notion that many crops cannot be 
successfully grown in soil strongly impregnated with these 
salts. This would be true with black alkali, but after 
many years' study of Colorado soils and a great many an- 
alyses of soils from all parts of the state, Dr. Headden has 
never been able to find more than a trace of this substance. 
Moreover, he finds that all of our common vegetables, 
orchard and farm crops, thrive in soils that contain as high 
as 4.69 per cent, or 160,000 pounds per acre, of soluble 
white alkalies in the first foot of soil. 

We may therefore safely conclude that alkali is respon- 
sible for little or no damage in this region. But where it 
collects in excess, we may be sure of the presence of free 
water. Alkali, then, is a question of seepage, and the 
death of trees and crops on such land is due, in a large 
measure at least, to water. 

Soil Surveys 

It should be mentioned here that the Bureau of Soils of 
the Department of Agriculture is doing a valuable work 
in making surveys of soils, although these surveys are yet 
confined to relatively few regions. This work comprises 



24 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

mechanical analyses of soils, the determining of the nature 
of.subsoils, the cause of seepage, as well as other features of 
a similar nature. The questions of climate, physiography, 
and geology are also considered. A fairly accurate map 
accompanies the descriptions, in which is given the location 
of the different types of soil and other important features. 
Such work requires a great deal of time ; consequently, 
but a comparatively small amount of the total area of the 
United States has as yet been surveyed. But fortunately 
a few regions in the Rocky Mountain states have been sur- 
veyed, and any one who is interested in fruit-growing or in 
farming in general will profit by reading these reports. By 
making a study of such a survey one can readily determine, 
within limits, to be sure, the kind of land, that is best 
adapted to different crops, and where it is located. 

Windbreaks 

The fruit districts of. the Rocky Mountain region are 
not subject to severe winds, and in the best fruit sections a 
windbreak would be a nuisance. But in some of the lesser 
fruit regions conditions are such that a protection from 
wind will usually be a great help. The winters are com- 
monly dry, and no provision has yet been made for winter 
irrigation. Consequently, when winds occur, even though 
they are not severe, their effects are severely felt. Scarcely 
a winter passes but that many young trees perish under 
such conditions simply by becoming dry, — the common 
cause of most of the so-called ^'freezing dry." Wind- 
breaks will certainly be a great aid in preventing this loss, 
at the same time being beneficial in many other respects. 
If fruit is to be grown at any considerable distance frorn^ 



Location, Exposure, Soils, and Windbreaks 25 

the foothills, protection from north and west winds will be 
essential in most localities. 

Every farmer owes it to his family to see that an abun- 
dance of fruit is provided for their use. But in the strictly 
agricultural districts, even the kitchen-garden is often 
wanting. The lack of a garden is due to neglect in 
many instances, but the sentiment seems to prevail that 
fruit-growing is impossible, even for home consumption. 
But a few people in almost every locality, where there 
is any possibility of fruit trees growing at all, are proving 
that, with suitable protection, much may be accom- 
phshed. 

Windbreaks, as the term implies, are plantations of 
trees or similar plants intended to check the force of the 
wind. They may be used to lessen the drying effects of 
winds both in winter and in summer, to prevent injury or 
loss to fruit in autumn, and to check or deflect the cold 
winds of winter from yards and buildings. Windbreaks 
for the last purpose are usually called shelter-belts, and 
are often several rods in width. 

The location of the windbreak will depend, of course, on 
the direction of the prevailing winds. For general pur- 
poses, the north and west sides of the area are the ones 
along which the breaks are planted in most parts of the 
West. Shelter-belts should be planted far enough from 
buildings so that drifting snows on the inner side will not 
be an inconvenience. 

The simplest kind of windbreak is formed by planting 
some one species of tree in a single, close row. If a tall- 
growing tree is used alone in this way, there is a tendency 
for the trees to spindle up, and in time the trunks lose their 



26 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

lower branches. Such an arrangement may do very well 
for a time, or where only partial checking of the wind's 
force is desired. But where more complete shelter is 
desired, it is usually necessary to plant- several rows of 
different species, so arranged that the low, dense-growing 
kinds will fill in the places between the taller ones. 

For the taller-growing tree in this region the common 
Cottonwood may be used, setting the trees about eight feet 
apart for the outer or north and west rows. A second row 
of some denser-growing kind should be planted about eight 
feet from the first and as close as four feet in the row. For 
this purpose box-elder is a suitable tree, except in dry 
situations, in which case the green ash is recommended. 
The trees in the third row may be planted as in the second 
row, using a more compact-growing kind. The Russian 
golden willow is recommended for this purpose as a rapid 
grower. The Russian olive (Elceagnus) is a more compact 
tree of lower growth and is particularly desirable. White 
or American elm is also a suitable tree for the inner rows 
in many places, particularly where a fair amount of mois- 
ture can be depended on. 

In cases where the wind is exceptionally strong, it may 
be necessary to plant a belt four or five rods wide, in order 
to secure complete protection. The outer two rows may 
consist of Russian olive, the third and fourth rows of black 
locust, the fifth and sixth of box-elder or ash, the seventh 
and eighth of American elm, and the inner two or three 
rows of Cottonwood or Carolina poplar, the rows being 
about eight feet apart. The Russian golden willow may 
be used in place of the elm, and honey locust may take the 
place of the black locust. 



Location, Exposure, Soils, and Windbreaks 27 

The same care should be given to planting as would be 
taken in setting an orchard. Seedling trees, two years old, 
are better in most cases than large trees, as they will bear 
transplanting more readily, are easily handled, and the 
cost is much reduced. Trim off all broken and bruised 
roots with a sharp knife, and cut back the tops to corre- 
spond. Set the trees an inch or two deeper than when 
in the nursery, and firm the soil about the roots. 

As soon as planted, irrigate, if water is available. If not, 
give a shallow cultivation to check surface evaporation. 
Cultivation should be continued during the growing sea- 
son, especially after each rainfall or irrigation. Such care 
should be continued during the first three to five years, or 
until the trees shade the ground between the rows. A 
mulch of old straw at this time may be placed between the 
rows, and will assist the trees in keeping down grass and 
weeds. 

Pruning is not desirable, unless it be so done as to cause 
a thicker growth. Thus, in the case of the willow, many 
smaller stems may be secured by cutting out the main 
trunk a foot or so above the ground when four or five years 
old. In this way a single, or, better still, a double row of 
willows, closely planted, may be used as a hedge, which 
will also serve as a very effective windbreak. 



CHAPTER III 
PREPARATION OF LAND FOR PLANTING 

A STUDY of the preceding chapter has at least suggested 
to the reader that there is variation in types of soil found 
in our Western mountainous regions; and in presenting a 
chapter on the preparation of the land for planting it must 
be reahzed that it is impossible to lay down a set of rules 
that will fit all cases. That the formation of the soil 
varies is not so surprising as that it varies in unexpectedly 
small areas, a condition of affairs that is not so commonly 
met on the plains. The foregoing chapter has suggested 
important points to be observed in choosing land for or- 
chard purposes; if in this chapter we mention methods of 
handling types of soil that are there classed as undesirable 
for orchard purposes, it is not because we are divided in our 
opinions; but we realize that in the eagerness to plant 
orchards, some of the warnings of the previous chapter will 
be disregarded, and suggestions on handling all types of 
land will be timely. 

The t5^e of soil will, in a way, dictate the course to be 
pursued in preparing it for the young orchard; but there 
is one maxim that will hold good in all cases, and that is, 
''what is worth doing at all is worth doing well." Too 
often the orchard is marked for life by being planted on 
land improperly prepared; as improperly leveled or plowed, 
or, as sometimes occurs, plowed only where the tree rows 

28 



Preparation of Land for Planting 29 

are to be placed. While the majority of our young or- 
chards have been planted on raw land, it is no doubt true 
that best success is attained by planting on land that has 
been previously cultivated and irrigated. Men who are 
in a position to make comparisons have intimated that 
fruit trees of the arid region are shallow-rooted, and if 
this is true, it can no doubt be attributed to setting on 
new land; the subsoil is dry, and the roots of the young 
tree seek the moisture suppHed by the first irrigations. It 
requires several years to get some soils moistened to the 
depth that tree roots normally go. 

Orchards on raw land are more difficult to irrigate the 
first season, and as a rule poorer stands are secured. 
From the observations of several seasons it would seem 
that, in the long run, it would pay to crop the land at 
least one season before planting the orchard. The texture 
of some of our heavier soils and the water-holding capacity 
of some of our lighter mesa lands would be greatly im- 
proved by plowing under a good green-crop of some kind. 
Cropping the proposed orchard site for one season with a 
grain crop not only puts it in better physical condition and 
insures a better growth and stand of trees, but largely 
does away with the annoyance of releveling among young 
trees, a condition that must be contended with in planting 
young orchards on some types of raw land. Young or- 
chards on alfalfa land, properly prepared, make even a 
better showing than those on areas previously cropped 
with grain. 

Settling and Leveling 

In the arid regions there are types of land (as indicated 
in Chapter II) that settle from one to three feet when irri- 



30 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

gation water is applied; such areas should be thoroughly 
watered before an attempt is made to level them. As a 
rule the higher knolls settle most, and leveling before set- 
tling often moves soil that must be moved back after the 
process of settling is completed. 

One of the first steps in preparing such land for planting 
is to plow furrows and run water as high as possible on 
these high places. As a rule they will sink to a level with 
the surrounding land; in fact, the presence of these knolls 
is often considered an indication that the land will settle. 
The settling cannot be completed in a few days, but the 
bad spots will go down, and future settling is gradual, and 
seldom seriously affects the general lay of the land. While 
the settling may continue for three or four years, land that 
has been properly watered the first season seldom settles so 
much but that it may be easily releveled without disturb- 
ing the trees. The soils that settle most are those built up 
by a decomposition of shale and sandstone, and while they 
generally lay comparatively level, the surface is more or 
less undulating. 

Orchard land should be well leveled before an attempt 
is made to plant it; leveling after the trees are planted 
is very unsatisfactory, to say nothing of the difficulty 
experienced in watering the young orchard on land im- 
properly leveled. It need not be a uniform grade all over 
the area, but the grower should have it in such shape that 
he can form a definite plan for irrigating it. Few fruit- 
growers go to the trouble of going over the land with a 
surveyor's level, although it would pay in many cases. We 
have seen fields broken by having a head ditch run across 
one corner when the level would have shown that the ditch 



Preparation of Land for Planting 



31 



could have followed the border just as well. Men who 
are used to it, however, can grade well by eye, and find little 
use for the level. Several forms of grading tools are on 
the market, most of them much more convenient than 
the common scraper. 

With soils that wash easily and where there is no danger 




Fig. 2. — Leveling with Water. 



of seeping lower lands, high knolls may be easily moved 
to lower levels by washing with irrigation water. It is 
surprising how quickly a hill may be moved with a small 
stream of water. The water is carried by gravity, or with 
a. pump, to the highest point of the hill, and when released 
over the side, carries the soil to the low places, where it is 
caught by a dike. (Fig. 2.) 

In grading, the important point is to see that water can 



82 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

be run on all the land, and that no low places are left with- 
out outlets for waste water. A little care in leveling will 
save one much labor and inconvenience in watering; in 
one case the water will only require setting, and in the 
other constant attention. The expense attached to start- 
ing the young orchard is heavy, and there is a temptation 
to set the trees and do the leveling at leisure times after- 
ward; but such a course cannot be commended, and often 
means disappointment. The man who makes a success of 
growing the young orchard is the one who has too much 
pride to allow himself to slight the work in any way at the 
outset. 

Plowing 

Fall-plowing is in many ways desirable for the pro- 
posed orchard site. The soil is exposed to the action of 
the weather, which not only improves its texture but 
liberates plant-food. Fall-plowed land settles well be- 
fore spring, and waters easily, while spring-plowed land 
is often irrigated the first time with difficulty. The 
water spreads too rapidly in the spring-plowed land, and 
this is especially objectionable with the heavier soils, 
as it tends to run the particles together, resulting in 
puddling and subsequent baking. When it is proposed 
to plant crops between the trees, fall-plowing provides 
a much better seed bed than spring-plowing. 

Fall-plowing is objectionable, however, in sections fre- 
quented by heavy spring winds, as the finely pulverized 
surface soil blows easily. Yet this difficulty can be 
largely overcome by an early spring discing. 

Land that has been plowed in late winter or early spring 
should be well worked down with the disc and harrow 



Preparation of Land for Planting 33 

before planting, and if this is thoroughly done, less diffi- 
culty will be experienced in the first watering. In cold, 
backward springs, young orchards have been seriously 
injured by a flooding of the surface in an attempt to water 
newly plowed land without first working it down. While 
young orchards may be started well on spring-plowed 
land, most men of experience will agree that the earlier 
the plowing can be done the better. 

The land selected for the new orchard, whether raw, 
or that which has been in cultivation, should be plowed 
to a good depth. The fact that land has been previously 
plowed and cultivated is often an argument in favor 
of more thorough preparation rather than a suggestion 
that the work may be slighted. There is no doubt but 
that careless handling has put some of our heavier soils 
in worse condition than they were in their native state. 
Alfalfa land should be well plowed if it is to be planted 
to young orchard. Turning the sod with a good sharp 
plow with an extra long share will save much labor in 
killing out the alfalfa the first season, for when once an 
alfalfa plant is cut off below the crown, it does not sprout 
from below; but a portion of a crown attached to a tap- 
root is a trouble maker. When the crown is severed 
from the taproot and buried, it may throw up sprouts, 
but a little deep cultivation soon discourages them. 

Some persons recommend the use of the subsoil plow 
in breaking up subsoils that are inclined to be hard. It 
may be that this tool could be used successfully to break 
up the marly subsoils of our thin mesa land and loosen 
some of the heavy soils that refuse to take water. In 
most cases it would hardly pay to subsoil the whole area, 

D 



34 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

but subsoiling a few furrows near where the tree row is 
to stand could hardly be a mistake. It would aid the 
water in reaching the dry subsoil and encourage deeper 
rooting of the young trees. 

In extreme cases giant powder has been used to break 
up hard subsoils, and has apparently given good results. 
There are only a few instances in which such a course 
can be recommended, but it is possible that with some of 
our mesa soils, which are underlaid with marl, it will prove 
to be worthy of trial. While one could hardly advise 
the planting of an orchard on a large body of land requir- 
ing such preparation, it is true that small spots that 
might be benefited or overcome by such treatment are 
often found in large bodies of good orchard land, and rather 
than have a break in the orchard plot it may be well to 
attempt to correct the fault by breaking up the subsoil. 
To apply this treatment, a bar is driven down where 
the tree is to stand, and a charge of dynamite, heavy 
enough to lift all the soil above it, is placed three feet 
below the surface. 



CHAPTER IV . 

PLANNING AND PLANTING THE ORCHARD 

One of the first problems in projecting the orchard is 
to decide what kind of fruit to grow. In planting the 
commercial orchard, the grower must escape from his old 
idea of the home orchard, where everything was supposed 
to grow, and be content with a few varieties of possibly 
one kind of fruit. We hear on every hand that this is a 
day of specialists, and the fruit-growing industry is no 
exception. The scientific as well as the practical farmer 
advises diversified farming, the rotation of crops being 
conceded to be the simplest and most economical method 
of maintaining the fertility of the soil; but in fruit-grow- 
ing, where the ordinary rotation of crops is out of the 
question, the orchardist has learned that it is more profit- 
able to do one thing and to do it well. General farming 
and fruit-growing do not go well together, and the pro- 
miscuous growing of fruit harmonizes little better. How- 
ever, the man who is capable and in position to handle 
an apple, peach, and pear plantation probably reaps a 
more uniform annual return than the one who stakes 
all on one of the three. That few men are capable of 
handling large orchards is a fact worth remembering, 
and large orchard enterprises must be promoted cau- 

35 



36 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

tiously. The men who are making the most money in 
our best fruit regions are those handhng ten- and twenty- 
acre orchards. 

The chapter on ''Location, Exposure, Soils, and Wind- 
breaks " has been introduced not alone with the idea of 
helping the fruit-grower to choose orchard localities, but 
to provide help in solving the problem as to what kind of 
fruit to grow. The chapter has suggested that certain 
types of soil are best adapted to growing particular kinds of 
fruit, and it has mentioned sites and locations suitable 
for growing fruits that frequently suffer from untimely 
frosts. 

In a way, the size of the orchard will determine what 
shall be planted. It is easier to handle — at least to har- 
vest and market — ten acres of peaches and ten acres 
of apples than to harvest and market twenty acres of 
peaches; and, as far as it is practicable, the orchard should 
be planned with the idea of handling the maximum amount 
of fruit with the minimum force of help. Unless the 
locality seldom suffers from late frosts, the fruit-grower 
cannot afford to plant peaches alone; and where the 
peach crop is uncertain, there is surely more money in 
growing apples and pears. 

What fruit one shall grow is often determined by the 
distance from a shipping point. Peaches cannot be hauled 
by wagon over any great distance, and this one factor 
may make an apple-growing district of a natural peach 
region. The questions of help and transportation must 
also be considered, for these are more serious problems 
in peach-growing than in apple-growing; peaches must 
be handled promptly, and delay generally means loss. 



Planning and Planting the Orchard 37 

Varieties 

The man who must sell his fruit through cooperative 
associations or commission houses, has learned that he 
must confine himself to a few recognized commercial 
varieties, for, to sell to the best advantage, he must have 
quantity as well as quality. All things considered, the 
orchard with a few varieties is more easily cared for and 
the crop more easily handled. The grower who fives near 
a large city where he can sell his fruit directly to the con- 
sumer or the marketmen, may adhere to the old type of 
orchard with a varied assortment of fruits and a succes- 
sion of varieties; but the grower more distant from his 
market cannot hope to make a financial success of the 
ten-acre orchard planted with the idea of furnishing him 
employment the year around and a continuous picking 
season. The length of the season, the soil, and the de- 
mands of the market, all have a part in determining 
what varieties should be planted, and they will receive 
further attention in the discussion on varieties (Chapter 
XV). 

Selection of Trees 

The choice of trees is a matter of primary importance, 
and it should receive very early consideration in planning 
an orchard. It is very often true that the man who 
plants an orchard has only a vague idea of what constitutes 
a first-class tree, but the man is to be pitied more who 
knows a good tree, and then plants a second-class one be- 
cause it is cheaper. Cheap trees are seldom, if ever, a 
bargain; the grower should insist on having first-class 
trees and should be willing to pay for them. The question 



38 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

of where the trees are grown does not seem to be so impor- 
tant as some persons are incHned to think. Provided the 
trees reach the grower in good condition, it probably 
matters Httle where they are grown. As a rule, the 
southern-grown trees have given as good satisfaction in 
the West as those grown in the northern nurseries. 

Provided the trees are equally strong and clean, it 
seems to matter little whether they are budded or grafted, 
or how they are grafted. Yet we often find growers who 
are prejudiced toward one or the other, and nurserymen 
who are ready to contend that, on account of their pecul- 
iar method of propagation, their stock is superior to 
all other. 

As a rule, the budded stock shows less crown gall than 
the grafted stock. The average yearling bud is larger than 
the average yearling graft, has a better root system, and 
with equal chances, makes a better growth in the orchard 
the first season. As yearlings, both the budded and the 
grafted tree are mere whips, and may be headed to suit 
the grower. The two-year-old budded tree is generally 
too large to plant, and, like the two-year-old graft, stands 
a chance of having been spoiled by improper training 
in the nursery. First-class yearling root-grafts are very 
satisfactory trees to plant, although they will not make 
as good growth the first season as most yearhng buds or 
two-year-old grafts; the root system is not well developed. 
Good ^'stands" are generally secured with the yearling 
grafts, however, and if the purchaser insists on getting 
first-class stock, — trees that are three feet in height, and 
caliper better than three eighths of an inch, — he will not 
be disappointed in the results. When it is possible to 



Planning and Planting the Orchard 39 

get a two-year-old graft properly headed, it is a very 
satisfactory tree to plant. With equal chances, it makes 
as good if not better growth than the yearhng bud during 
the first season in the orchard, and gives equally as good 
'^stands." Unless the purchaser is quite sure, however, 
that the two-year-olds are well headed, he should buy the 
yearlings instead. First-class one-year-old budded trees 
probably give as good satisfaction as any. 

In the arid states, at least, the age of the tree at the 
time of setting seems to have little to do with the age at 
which the orchard comes into bearing, so that one really 
gains nothing in setting trees too large to start well. 

Jun^-budded peach trees from southern nurseries have 
been extensively planted in some parts of the inter-moun- 
tain states, and have generally given good satisfaction. 
The tree is rather immature and, unless carefully packed 
for shipment, the tops dry out and the buds refuse to start 
except from near the base. In buying such stock, the 
grower should order trees of good size, and insist on their 
reaching him in good condition. After he receives them, 
it is to his interest to see that they are well handled. 
Should they arrive early, and it be necessary to heel them 
in until the land is prepared, or until the weather is favor- 
able for planting, the greater part of the top as well as the 
roots should be well covered with moist earth. 

The grower has a right to insist that his trees be free 
from insect pests and injurious diseases. If he orders 
first-class trees, he has a right to expect them to be such, 
and if he orders second-class trees, he generally takes 
what comes. Do not expect, however, every first-class 
tree to be absolutely straight, or those of all varieties to be 



40 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

of equal size; varieties vary in their habits of growth. 
Do business with the agent who works your territory 
annually rather than with the itinerant tree-peddler 
or with distant nurseries advertising cheap stock. The 
business of the nurseryman is not always lucrative, and 
you can generally rely upon his business ability to give you 
no more than you pay for. Do not expect the inspector 
to interfere with the agent who attempts to dehver trees 
that are not up to grade, or stock that is in bad condition 
from causes other than the attacks of insects or of plant 
diseases, for that is not his business. The buj^er must 
settle those differences with the agent himself. 

Care of Nursery Stock 

Trees are often delivered by the nurseryman before 
the grower is ready to plant, and in such cases the recipient 
should know how to handle them. To keep the trees 
from drying out and, if planting must be delayed, to keep 
them in a dormant condition, are the ends to be attained 
in caring for nursery stock. 

The stock should be unpacked as soon as it is delivered, 
for if stored in large bundles it may heat and the buds 
may start. If the stock is to be heeled-in out of doors, 
a spot should be chosen where the trees will be in the shade 
most of the day. Here a trench is dug, and, after cutting 
the bundles open, the roots are placed in the trench and 
covered with well-broken soil, which should be thoroughly 
shaken in among the roots. The layer of trees should not 
be thick, and they should be placed at right angles to the 
trench in preference to being inclined with the trench 
with the tops overlapping. If space will not permit of 



Planning and Planting the Orchard 41 

spreading the trees out in this way, the tops may be 
overlapped, if the roots of each succeeding layer are well 
separated from the last by plenty of earth. Unless the 
soil is very moist and can be well shaken in among the roots, 
it should be settled with water ^nd re-covered with fresh 
soil to prevent baking and drying out. The trees may be 
kept dormant longer by burying them root and top. 
Trees may be stored in a cool cellar, with the roots packed 
in moist straw or moss. They should be frequently 
sprinkled, and the cellar kept as cool as possible by ven- 
tilating at night and closing in the daytime. 

It occasionally happens that trees become dry in tran- 
sit, and the grower is faced with the question of accepting 
them or going without trees. It is hard to say just how 
dry the tree may get before it is actually injured to the 
extent that it will not revive, but no agent can force the 
delivery of trees that have dried to the extent that the 
bark is shriveled, without, at least, a provision to replace 
those that are lost. Trees that are received in a shriveled 
condition should be buried, root and top, in a well mois- 
tened soil and kept there until they regain their original 
plumpness. The chances are that trees set in a shriveled 
condition will die, but we have seen good stands secured 
after freshening the trees as advised. The freshening 
may be hastened somewhat by immersing the trees in 
water. This question is not discussed in defense of 
the nurseryman who willfully dehvers his stock in a care- 
less condition, but such cases will arise, and knowing how 
to lessen the seriousness of the injury may save both 
the nurseryman and the grower much inconvenience and 
loss. 



42 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

Plans, and Distances for Planting 

The plan of laying out the orchard and the distances 
for planting are points on which growers do not all agree, 
for questions are involved that may be considered personal 
and not necessarily essential. 

All things considered, the square or rectangular method 
of planting seems to be the most satisfactory. It allows 
of cultivation two ways, and where our fields are mostly 
squares or rectangles, it is practically the simplest plan of 
laying out. 

Another plan is that known as the hexagonal system. 
With the trees the same distance apart, about 15 
per cent more trees can be planted to the acre than with 
the rectangular system. The trees alternate in the ad- 
jacent rows, and the rows are crowded together so that 
all adjacent trees are equally distant from each other. 
The plan is well illustrated in Figure 3. Set on the square 
30 X 30 feet, 48 trees may be planted to the acre; with the 
hexagonal system, 55 trees may be planted to the acre, 
with no spaces between adjacent trees less than thirty 
feet. While the hexagonal plan allows of planting more 
trees to the acre, it leaves no wide middles. It is not only 
a question of having the trees far enough apart to prevent 
their interlocking, but the middles must be wide enough to 
accommodate orchard machinery. The figure shows that 
while the trees are 30 feet apart, the widest middles are 
only 26 feet. If the grower insists upon planting 55 trees 
to the acre, leaving the rows 30 feet apart, and crowding 
the trees to 26 feet in the row would probably be more 
satisfactory in the long run. 



Planning and Planting the Orchard 43 



9 


. f 


f 


t 


f 


f 


^4 


f 


f 


f^ 


f 


1-^ 


f 


f 


? 


9 


^ 


t 


f 


f 


f 


9 




f 




f 




(f 




f 




f 










Fig. 3. — Hexagonal Plan of Planti 



ng. 



44 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

Before any definite plan of planting is decided on, one 
should get the dimensions of the plot to be set, and figure 
out which way it may be planted to the best advantage. 

Distances for planting will vary for different fruit 
trees, with varieties, and with soils; and all of these 
points should be carefully considered in laying out the 
orchard. It is safe to say that growers more often make 
the mistake of planting too close than too far apart. 
No doubt it has been demonstrated to the satisfaction of 
most fruit-growers that, on usual soils, few varieties of 
apples should be planted closer than 30 feet. On some 
of our lighter soils they may be planted a little closer 
without crowding, but a better plan would be to improve 
such soils and set at the greater distances. Such varie- 
ties as the Wagener, Rome (Beauty), Missouri (Pippin), 
Wealthy, and Oldenburgh may be planted as close as 
25 X 25 feet to good advantage. Planting 30 X 30 feet 
may seem close to some persons, but there are probably 
onlj^ a few instances in the arid regions in which more 
space could be recommended or utilized. Fruit-trees in 
the inter-mountain country are more inclined to overbear 
than to overgrow, and to keep them well pruned and 
within bounds is not only beneficial to the tree but it is 
an advantage to the grower, as most orchard opera- 
tions are facilitated thereby. 

To allow of proper pruning and the full development of 
the tree, most varieties of peaches should be planted not 
closer than 20 X 20 feet; and when we consider that a 
ten-year-old peach tree that has been properly pruned 
should have a spread of sixteen feet, it will be seen that 
the distance is not too great. As many peach trees are 



Planning and Planting the Orchard 45 

spoiled because the pruner is not given the room to train 
them properly as are spoiled by incompetent pruners. 
It is true that peach trees can be grown when set 16 x 16 
feet, but they cannot be developed properly, unless it be 
on some of the lighter mesa soils. 

Cherries should have about the same amount of room 
as the peach. Some of the sour cherries of the Morello 
type are poor growers, and could be planted closer; and 
if some of the upright-growing sweet varieties are to be 
allowed to take their natural form, they may be grown 
closer, but a better plan would be to give them plenty 
of room and spread the top by proper pruning. 

If properly trained, pear trees will utilize all the space 
when planted twenty feet apart. Some kinds may be 
planted closer and be allowed to grow in their natural 
form, but is it doubtful whether it is advisable. 

Both peaches and pears may be crowded to sixteen feet 
in the row, leaving the one wide middle, but, with the 
peaches, especially, it hardly permits cross-cultivation 
after the trees reach any size. 

WTien planted on the square, 20 X 20 feet, 108 trees 
maybe planted to the acre; set 16 x 20, the number will 
be increased to 135. After forming a general idea of the 
plan and distances for planting, it may be necessary to 
modify them to suit the particular piece of land to be 
planted. Suppose, for example, that we are planting a 
square ten-acre plot, and that we decide to set the trees 
30 X 30 feet; the rows will contain 22 trees each way, 
and give a 15-foot border. But with a fence around the 
orchard this border is hardly wide enough, and by reducing 
the distance between trees 6 inches each way, 5 feet could 



46 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

be added to the border, and we should hardly notice that 
the trees were any closer together. 

A simple method of determining the number of trees 
required to plant an acre, when planted by the square 
or rectangular plan, is to multiply together the two dis- 
tances, in feet, at which the trees stand, and divide 43,560 
(the number of square feet in an acre) by the product. 
To find the number required for the hexagonal system, 
add 15 per cent to the number required to set at the 
same distance with the rectangular system. 

Fillers 

The advisibility of planting '' fillers" (or temporary 
trees between the others, to be removed as the others 
mature) in the apple orchard has been argued pro and 
con, and it probably always will be a debatable question, 
for much depends on the man who grows the orchard. 
The only objection the writers have to planting fillers 
is that they too often become fixtures. The average 
man lacks the courage to pull out a tree when it gives 
promise of producing another crop, and, as a consequence, 
the shape of the permanent tree is ruined before the filler 
is removed. If we were planting an orchard, we would 
probably plant fillers, but at the same time we could not 
advise every one to follow our example. 

If properly selected and removed in time, fillers are 
profitable. Peach trees as fillers are probably as profit- 
able as any in a section where a peach crop can be 
rehed on, and, if properly handled, they should produce 
a box of fruit the third season with an increase of two to 
three boxes per season for the next three years, or until it 



Planning and Planting the Orchard 47 

becomes necessary to remove them. Varieties of apple 
that bear young may be used as fillers, and such varieties 
as the Missouri (Pippin), Wagener, and possibly Rome 
(Beauty) may be made to yield good returns. 

Fillers give best results in the orchard laid out on the rec- 
tangular plan; in fact, it is difficult to place fillers to advan- 
tage when the permanent trees are set by the hexagonal 
system. With the permanent trees set on the rectangular 
plan, the best place for the filler is in the center of each 
rectangle, or in the ^'diamond," as it is sometimes termed. 
This doubles the number of trees per acre, and gives all the 
trees the maximum amount of available space. Some 
object to this system, however, and prefer to plant the 
fillers in the row, leaving one wide middle. 

With the permanent trees 30 feet apart, apple or peach 
fillers may stand in the row from 6 to 7 years, and if 
they are planted in the diamond, it is safe to say that 
they could stand 2 years longer. If fillers are to be em- 
ployed, they should be given the maximum amount of 
available room, and pruned sparingly to encourage early 
fruitfulness. The average man, however, will have better 
success in growing crops in the young orchard instead of 
trying to secure an early income from fillers. 

Inter planting of Varieties 

The interplanting or mixing of varieties to secure cross- 
fertilization has been widely recommended, especially 
in the East; and while it is doubtful whether any one is 
willing to say that it is necessary or even beneficial in 
the arid fruit regions of the West, it is probably wise, 
at least, to avoid planting large blocks to a single variety. 



48 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

It is a fact that some varieties are poor pollen producers, 
and, while we have not seen a case in which lack of proper 
pollination could be proved to be responsible for a poor 
set of fruit, we are inclined to favor the interplanting of 
varieties. 

It is often inconvenient and, no doubt, unnecessary, to 
alternate the rows, as some do, but it is just as convenient 
to have, say, four rows of one variety and then four of 
another variety. This arrangement is sufficient to insure 
perfect cross-pollination. It is necessary, however, to 
plant together varieties with coinciding seasons of bloom. 
Practically all of oiu* commercial varieties of pears bloom 
near enough together to insure perfect cross-pollination, 
and with the exception of the Rome (Beauty) and Ralls 
(Geneton), the blooming periods of our common commer- 
cial varieties of apple overlap enough in normal seasons 
that they may poUinate each other. 

When to Plant 

In many fruit regions the grower has his choice of plant- 
ing either in the spring or in the fall, but in the arid fruit 
sections of the West, spring planting is really the only 
practice that can be recommended. Trees planted in the 
fall do not become well established, and in the dry winters 
the roots are unable to supply moisture as rapidly as it 
is being transpired from the top. As a consequence, the 
tree often dries out to the extent that it lacks the vitality 
to make a good start in the spring. 

March and April are the favorable months for tree- 
planting in the Middle Western states. As a rule the trees 
may be planted as soon as the ground is in condition 



Planmng and Planting the Orchard 49 

to work in the spring; we may almost say, the earUer 
the planting the better. The tree makes its start from 
stored-up plant-food, and any growth the tree makes 
before it is planted weakens it that much. If it is neces- 
sary to delay the planting, every effort should be made 
to hold the trees in dormant condition; and, if they are 
kept in this condition, good ''stands" may be secured 
by planting, even after the orchards are practically in 
full leaf. But the chances are against the young orchard 
planted late, and planting with the opening of spring is 
recommended. 

Methods of Planting 

Too Qiuch care cannot be given to laying out the young 
orchard in a neat and attractive way, and there is much in 
knowing how. If the proposed orchard site is a square or 
a rectangular plot, and the trees are to be set on the rec- 
tangular plan, one of the simplest methods of laying out 
is to establish the boundary lines and lay off on two oppo- 
site sides the distances between rows, and on the other 
two sides the distances between trees. These points are 
marked with stakes that can be easily seen across the 
field, and with these points established, a few more rows of 
stakes should be sighted-in through the middle. Unless 
the field is very large or rough, two rows of stakes through 
the middle will be sufficient and, we may say, desirable, 
as with four established points any stake knocked down 
in marking may be reset without the aid of a second 
man to do the sighting. 

If the field is irregular, the best plan is to establish the 
boundary lines of the largest rectangular plot it contains, 



50 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

and proceed as before. Irregular corners can then be 
plotted by sighting to stakes in the larger area. 

In plotting the field for hexagonal planting, the only 
difference is that double the number of points would have 
to be established on the sides to give the position of the 
trees in the alternate rows. 



Fig. 4. — Method of Marking Land for Planting. 

Some practice marking both ways with a light furrow- 
ing shovel attached to a convenient orchard cultivator, 
and then throw out the rows with a plow; others simply 
plow out the rows, and then a man cross-marks the field 
by walking to the stakes and dragging a chain or some 
other convenient marker behind him. Marking the 
field both ways gives all the points for trees, and, with 
the stakes reset to facilitate sighting-in the trees, the 
orchard may be well lined up. In sighting-in the trees, 



Planning and Planting the Orchard 51 

the setter should always look ahead and line the trees 
with the stakes rather than with the trees set behind. 
The final test for determining the accuracy of the position 
of the tree is to see that it lines up with the diagonal rows. 
Other methods of laying out, as with a line, could be 
given, but most of them are tedious if not impracticable. 

The system that requires the most work does not al- 
ways give the most satisfactory results. Figure 4 shows a 
large field laid out by the stake method and marked both 
ways. Here fourteen men are shown, actually engaged 
in planting; two are distributing trees from the wagon, 
six are digging the holes and filling in about the trees, 
and the other six are trimming and placing the trees. 
These fourteen men set twenty acres per day without 
difficulty, and set them well. 

Trees should be handled carefully in planting, and the 
roots should be exposed to the air no longer than neces- 
sary. If the force of men is large, the plan of hauling the 
trees in a wagon, with men to distribute them, is a good 
one. With the furrow method of planting, the man with 
the shovel may dig the hole, while the other prunes the 
roots, and, if he is to be trusted, the top. 

A very convenient method of handhng the trees when 
setting with four men or less is to carry the bundles of 
trees, with the roots well protected, on a sled. A barrel 
one quarter full of water is placed on one end of the sled, 
and as soon as a bunch is cut it is dropped in the barrel. 
With the sled between the two rows, the two men sighting- 
in the trees can take them from the barrel. Root-pruning 
consists in cutting off the broken ends, cutting them all 
back to six or eight inches in length, and possibly thinning 



52 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

them out a little. The hole should be large enough to 
let the tree stand two or three inches deeper than it stood 
in the nursery. In localities where strong winds affect 
the growth of the tree, the heavier part of the root system 
is turned in the direction of the prevailing winds. Where 
the wind is not a factor, the heavier part of the root system 
is turned toward the southwest. The top may be leaned 
to overcome the influence of prevailing winds, or to the 
southwest to protect the body from the sun. In our 
hot climate the trees show an inclination to grow heavier 
in the northeast side, and leaning the tree to the south- 
west or placing the heavier part of the root system or of 
the top in this direction helps to overcome this tendency. 
With the tree in position, the fine top soil is pushed 
back in the hole and worked in about the roots by a slight 
churning motion of the tree. In this process the tree 
will work upward somewhat, and the planter must allow 
for this in placing the tree. With the roots well covered 
and the top soil slightly tramped, the water is turned 
in the furrow to complete the settling. After a thorough 
watering, fresh soil is thrown about the crown of the tree, 
and the furrow is left open for a second watering ten 
days or two weeks later. After the second watering, it 
is advisable to fill this furrow and to water from the side. 



CHAPTER V 
THE ORCHARD PLANT 

Few persons who attempt to plant and grow trees 
realize what delicate organisms they are, and still fewer 
persons have a correct conception of how plants take 
their food from soil and air, how the crude food materials 
are made over in the leaves, and of the other numerous 
hfe processes. Considering the dehcate nature and in- 
tricate structure of plants and the lack of information on 
the subject, it is surprising to note the degree of success 
to which the business of orcharding has attained. We 
may well take the time, then, to make a somewhat hasty 
sketch of the make-up of the orchard plant. 

For our purpose a tree may be divided into three parts, 
— roots, stems, and leaves, 

The Roots 

Roots serve the two principal purposes of anchoring 
the tree, and thus holding it in place, and of taking plant- 
food from the soil. 

The roots of trees have a greater spread than is com- 
monly realized; ordinarily it is safe to assume that the 
spread of the roots' is greater than that of the branches. 
The length of roots depends on the nature of the soil 

53 



54 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

and the amount of water and of raw food materials. 
Ordinarily roots should penetrate deeply in mountain 
soils for the reason that orchard land is, or should be, 
deep and with no hard subsoil. But if the soil is shallow, 
or the moisture and supply of food materials are largely 
near the surface, the roots soon occupy the space in spite 
of the fact that it is their nature at first to grow down- 
ward. Those instances in which roots, when very young, 
grow upward, are very likely due to poor cultivation and 
the consequent location of the food materials and moisture 
supply near the surface. Eventually, however, the upper 
layers of soil are largely occupied with a mass of small 
roots. 

Roots may grow to great lengths in poor soil, but in a 
fertile soil they tend to make shorter growths and to 
occupy all of the ground. A root of a cottonwood tree 
recently brought to the writer was forty-eight feet in 
length and only one and one-half inches in diameter at the 
larger end. This tree grew in the mountains in a rocky 
situation near a river bank. The root pushed out laterally 
just beneath the surface, evidently in search of water, 
till finally a change in the river bed caused it to be washed 
out. 

All of the elements of plant-food, with the single excep- 
tion of carbon, are taken into the plant from the soil in 
solution. The larger roots are not concerned to any great 
extent in this process of absorption, but near the end of the 
smallest growing points are the regions where this process 
takes place. Just back of the growing tip is a short zone 
where minute and often invisible growths, known as 
root-hairs, push out from the outer cells. These root-hairs 



The Orchard Plant 



55 



i 



,4 



are exceedingly delicate and are of short duration. As the 
root increases in length, new ones are formed and the older 
ones die, so that they are continually dying and new ones 
are being formed throughout the growing season. (See 
Fig. 5.) Great numbers of these organs are formed in good 
soil which is in proper tilth, and thus provide the tree with 

an immense absorptive surface. These ^ ^^^^^_^ _ 

tiny growths penetrate in between and 
often grow around the soil particles in 
order to absorb more readily the film of 
water which surrounds the particles. 

Such dehcate structures as root-hairs 
are easily destroyed, so it is not to be won- 
dered at that nursery trees, as they are re- 
ceived by the orchardist, have lost all of 
these organs. When such trees start into 
growth, they do so at the expense of the 
food that has been stored in the tissues, 
and this drain must continue until new 
root-hairs can be formed. Untoward con- 
ditions of any kind, such as extremes of 
moisture or drought, heat or cold, may cause the death 
of these important organs. Hard, compact soils ex- 
clude the air to such an extent that but few root-hairs 
develop. Yellow foliage and a stunted growth are com- 
mon sj^mptoms resulting from these conditions. 

The soil water, of course, contains small amounts of 

plant-food materials in solution; usually not more than 

.01 to .03 per cent of solid matter dissolved in it.^ When 

the soil solutions contain as much as 2 per cent of dissolved 

^Percival, "Agricultural Botany," p. 203. 



u 



Fig. 5.— A Root- 
hair. (After 
Stevens.) 



56 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

substances, injury to the plant may result. The presence 
of free water for any great length of time deprives the roots 
of the normal supply of air and results in death. Soil is 
said to contain free water when the spaces between the 
soil particles are filled. 

Soil water is taken up by the root-hairs by a process 
known as osmosis. This process may be explained briefly 
as follows: When two liquids, one concentrated and the 
other dilute, are separated from each other by a thin mem- 
brane, there will be a movement of the dilute solution 
through the membrane into the more concentrated. This 
is the only way that water can enter roots. The cell 
contents of the root-hairs being more concentrated than 
the soil solutions, the passage is into the plant. Should 
the soil solutions by any means have the greater concen- 
tration, the movement would be from the root-hairs into 
the soil, and injury or death would result. This is what is 
supposed to happen in those rather rare instances when 
plants are injured by alkali. The soil water dissolves 
these salts, and thus becomes more highly concentrated 
than the cell contents of the root-hairs. 

From the root-hairs the moisture moves to the central 
part of the root and on up to the stem. 

The Stem 

Did the reader ever stop to think of what use stems are 
to plants, or why they have stems or trunks at all? We 
know there are various forms of stems, ranging in size 
from the smallest plant to the tallest tree. Some are thick, 
others thin, and some, as the vines, require support. 
Why all these various forms, and what, indeed, is the need 



The Orchard Plant 57 

for stems at all? The only purpose they serve is to lift 
the leaves up to those situations where they will receive 
the maximum amount of sunshine and of air. In its 
natural state the grapevine could best do this with the 
support of other plants. It can now easily reach the tops 
of tall trees, and is thus enabled to flourish in situations 
where it would otherwise perish. On the other hand, the 
dandelion has so successfully adapted itself to conditions 
that it has become a most persistent weed, and yet it is 
nearly stemless. 

But the crude food materials taken in by the roots must 
pass through the stems or trunk to the leaves, and a por- 
tion of elaborated food must be returned, even to the 
smallest root, to build up the parts. The trunk must 
therefore be kept in a healthy, vigorous condition, and a 
knowledge of its make-up will help one to a more thorough 
understanding of some of the important horticultural 
operations. 

A good idea of the make-up of such a stem as is found 
among orchard trees may be had by consulting the dia- 
gram shown in Figure 6. This represents a plant or a stem 
at the close of the first season's growth. Older trunks or 
branches would present much the same appearance, with 
the exception that there would be as many layers of wood 
as there were years of growth, and the parts would be 
more compact. 

The central portion of the stem at 1 is composed of pith. 
This was originally formative tissue, and out of it the other 
special cells are formed. The pith may serve as a storage 
for plant-food, but as the plant becomes older, these cells 
gradually lose their function. 



58 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



The large tubes shown at 2 form a part of the new or 
sapwood. It is through these vessels that the water taken 
in by the roots passes upward to the leaves, and they form 
a continuous passage, interrupted only at rather long in- 

1 




Stem. (After Stevens.) 



tervals by thin cross-partitions. As the plant grows older, 
these tubes become thickened or woody, and new ones are 
produced, until a more or less solid layer of wood is formed. 
After a few years what is now sapwood becomes heart- 
wood, and its activities then cease. 

The peculiar markings on these vessels are thin places in 
the walls, and they allow water to escape. They may also 



The Orchard Plant 59 

allow some of the stored food in the stem to enter these 
water passages in the spring of the year, as at this time the 
buds are swelling, and an extra food supply is needed at 
once in these parts. 

Transformed formative tissue extends outward be- 
tween the bundles of water-carrying vessels, as shown at 
3. As the bundles increase in thickness and in numbers, 
they so crowd these cells that they are contracted into 
very small space. A cross-section of any limb or trunk 
shows these flattened cells as fine white lines that radiate 
outward from the center. These are called medullary 
rays, and their function is to allow a movement of both 
food and water to and from the inner, living tissues. 

Other sets of vessels or tubes are shown at 4 on the 
inner side of the bark. These are not so large as the water 
vessels, neither are they so nearly continuous in their 
connection. These are known as sieve tubes, and their 
function is to carry food that has been elaborated in the 
leaves, in either direction, wherever the demands of growth 
require. 

The cambium or growing layer is shown at 5. This 
is composed of a narrow zone of small cells, out of which 
the water vessels and eventually wood are formed on the 
inner side and sieve-tubes and the several layers that com- 
pose the bark on the outer side. This is the only region in 
the entire stem or trunk in which growth is possible in 
orchard plants. 

The bark does not ordinarily increase in thickness to 
any great extent. The outer layers serve as a protection 
to the delicate tissues within. As a new layer is formed 
each season from the outer cambium layer, the outer layers 



60 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

of bark, when dead, are split by pressure from within, and 
gradually drop off. 

We can now understand how the trunks of all tree fruits 
with which our orchardists have to deal increase in size by 
the growth of a ring of wood each year just beneath the 
bark. By counting the rings, one may determine the age 
of a tree with a fair degree of accuracy. As the tree grows 
older, the inner wood becomes inactive, and so takes but 
little part in the life processes. This accounts for the fact 
that a hollow tree — a mere shell of a trunk — may hve 
as long as though it were perfectly sound, if the tree does 
not break down. 

It is a common notion that the split made in limbs in 
grafting will grow together, but we can now see that this is 
impossible and, moreover, that the region where a union 
of the stock and cion can take place is very small. This 
necessitates careful handling of the parts to prevent injury, 
as well as to see that the cambium layers of cion and stock 
come into intimate contact. 

The movement of sap up the stem and the channels 
may be illustrated by inserting a freshly cut succulent 
stem in red ink. After a time it will be found that the 
ink has ascended the stem for some distance, and the 
water vessels above described are the only parts which are 
colored. 

This function of the vessels of sapwood is also proved by 
the action of girdled trees. If a ring of bark only is re- 
moved without injuring the wood, a tree may live through 
an entire season; but if a ring of sapwood is removed at 
the same time, the tree will soon die. 

Girdling or ringing a tree will also illustrate where the 



The Orchard Plant 61 

tissue that conveys the elaborated food is located. If the 
ring of bark is taken from the trunk below all leaves or 
leaf-bearing limbs, the tree usually will die. This must 
be for the reason that no food can reach the roots from 
the leaves, consequently starvation of those parts results. 
On the other hand, if a ring of bark is removed from the 
trunk above several hmbs, the wound will usually heal, 
provided, of course, that it is not so large that the sapwood 
is seriously injured by drying out. A noticeable swelling 
of the bark occurs on the upper side of the girdle, caused 
by an excess of food, its movement downward having been 
arrested at that point. Advantage is sometimes taken of 
plants in horticultural practice in arresting the downward 
movement of plant-food from the leaves by removing a 
ring of bark. The upward flow of crude material from the 
roots is not interfered with, but the food that has been 
made over in the leaves cannot get past the girdle, con- 
sequently those parts above this point receive an excess of 
food. This practice is common in vineyards in some sec- 
tions, and some varieties of grapes may be made to ripen 
twenty days earlier than on unringed vines, and the ber- 
ries grow from one-third to one-half larger. Earliness in 
ripening and increased size is usually at the expense of 
quahty; consequently this practice cannot be recom- 
mended as being worthy of general adoption. 

The Leaves 

The bibhcal saying that '^all flesh is grass" is true to the 
last degree, for there are no living organisms other than 
green plants that do not, in the final analysis, owe their 
existence to the leaves of plants or rather to the products 



62 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



of leaves. We have seen that plants may be practically 
stemless, but none of the higher plants can exist without 
leaves, or organs that take their place. Many of the cacti 
are leafless, but their stems have been so modified that 
they perform the work of leaves. 

It is in the leaves and young green parts that plant-food 
is manufactured; the one element of plant-food that is 

taken into plants in a gaseous 
state (carbon, in carbon dioxid 
gas) enters through the leaves 
and to some extent through other 
green portions; the excesses of 
moisture and of gases are given 
off by the leaves. It will be 
seen, then, that the leaves are 
the most important organs in 
the economy of a plant, and 
as such are worthy of study. 
This may be done best by refer- 
ring to a diagram. 

A cross-section of a leaf is 
shown in Figure 7, the upper 
side being at the top of the figure. The first layer of cells, 
at 1, constitutes the epidermis. The one feature of special 
importance in the epidermis is the opening or stoma shown 
at 2. It is through such minute openings that carbon 
dioxid, with air, enters, and through them the excess of 
water and of gases is given off. 

Since the water solutions of the soil contain the elements 
of plant-food in such minute quantities, a much greater 
amount of water must be taken into the plant than can b^ 




- Cross-section of a 
(After Stevens.) 



The Orchard Plant 63 

used in building tissue. This excess must pass off through 
the stomata. It has been estimated that from 15 to 25 
pounds of water must pass through a plant in order to 
produce one ounce of dry material; or to make it more 
expressive, in the formation of 1000 pounds of dry matter, 
2 iO,000 to 400,000 pounds of water are used. 

A German investigator calculated the amount of water 
evaporated by an oak tree which was about 20 feet high 
and which grew in an isolated situation. His experiments, 
the results of which are given in the following table, ex- 
tended through the growing season: — 

Table I. Amount of Water evaporated from an Oak Tree 
DURING the Growing Season 

May (14 days) 1,944 pounds. 

June 57,250 pounds. 

July 63,265 pounds. 

August 47,839 pounds. 

September 38,882 pounds. 

October 37,450 pounds. 

Total 236,630 pounds. 

This is equivalent approximately to 29,578 gallons. 
This investigator also '^ found that water evaporated 
during the season, when considered with reference to the 
area of ground covered by the tree top, was equal to a 
layer 212 inches high; observation had shown the annual 
rainfall to be 25.6 inches; so that the water evaporated 
from the tree was eight times the amount which fell upon 
the earth under it." ^ 

The passage of air and gases in and out of leaves is an 
equally important function of stomata. About one-half 
of the dry weight of a tree is composed of carbon, or the 
^ Adapted from Bessey, "Botany," p. 172. 



64 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

charcoal that is left when wood is so burned as to produce 
this product. The air contains only three to four parts 
of carbon dioxid in 10,000, so in order to make 1000 
pounds of dry wood, 38,864,193 cubic feet of air must have 
been taken into the plant. ^ 

Stomata are found in green stems as well as in leaves, but 
are usually more abundant on the under surface of leaves. 
In order to do the enormous amount of work that leaves 
are called on to perform, there must be great numbers 
of these openings. The apple leaf, for example, contains 
about 24,000 to the square inch.^ 

The next thing one notices in the diagram is that the leaf 
is made up of a mass of irregularly shaped cells with air 
spaces between them. These cells are largely occupied by 
small, round, green bodies. This coloring matter, called 
chlorophyll, is what gives the characteristic color to leaves. 
It is in these minute bodies that the transformation of food 
materials is performed. The green coloring matter ab- 
sorbs energy from the sunhght, and the water from the soil 
is combined with the carbon of the air to form sugar and 
starch, and later, other combinations. The starch does 
not remain here long, but is soon dissolved, transformed, 
or combined, and passes through the sieve-tubes to parts 
where food is needed or is stored in less active tissue when 
an excess is made. 

At 3 is shown a leaf vein. Veins are largely made up 
of a continuation of water vessels and of sieve-tubes. 
It will be remembered that it is through the former that 
the soil water passes up to the leaves, and the sieve-tubes 

^ Adapted from Strasburger, Noll, Schenck and Karsten, p. 215. 
2 Bergen and Davis, "Principles of Botany." p. 104. 



The Orchard Plant 65 

transport the food after it has been transformed into prod- 
ucts which plants may use. 

Starch is formed only during the daytime, and it is 
reasonable to suppose that the greater amount of sun- 
shine common to the arid regions must result in a larger 
production of starch. This must be one important reason 
why plants are more fruitful in the higher altitudes. 
Other and more complex materials are produced at night 
by the combination of the starch with the materials 
brought in from the soil. The uniformly cool nights may 
hinder this part of plant-food manufacture, and thus tend 
to retard gro\\i/h, resulting in early bearing and fruitful- 
ness. 



CHAPTER VI 
BUDS 

Most of the fruit-trees with which our orchardists have 
to do normally make a determinate or definite growth 
during a season; the apricots and many of the plums are 
exceptions. If we examine the winter condition of the 
last growth made by an apple tree, we shall find that it 
is terminated by a bud, and that there are a number of 
side buds that occur at fairly regular intervals. Any 
of these buds, either lateral or terminal, may be fruit- 
buds, as will be shown later. 

If we select one of the branch-buds and pick it to pieces, 
we shall find that it is composed of a mass of tiny leaves, 
those on the inside being much crumpled and compacted, 
while the outer ones are of regular formation. The latter 
are known as bud-scales, and they drop off soon after the 
bud starts into growth. The interior ones will form the 
leaves of next season's growth; and usually all of the 
leaves which the new growth of the season will produce 
are present in miniature in the bud, the exact number 
being determined the season before. 

One can easily distinguish between the growth of 
different years when the branch is not too old, or when 
second growth has not taken place, by the slight bulge 

66 



\ Buds 67 

tH^t is encircled by several rows of tiny scars. This 
enlargement marks the position of the bud from which 
grovth proceeded during that season, and the scars mark 
the -point of attachment of bud scales. 

SiLce the growth of an apple limb from year to year 
is generally straight, it follows that shoots proceed from 
terminal buds. But terminal buds may also produce 
blossoms, or the shoot may be broken or cut back in 
pruning. In such cases the new growth develops from 
one of tht side or lateral buds. 

All will remember that leaves occur singly on new 
growths. By a further examination of these leafless 
shoots, we find that at the base of each bud is a scar thafc 
marks the poiat where a leaf was attached. Buds and 
leaves, then, always go together, and under normal 
conditions a bud forms in the axil of each leaf. In some 
plants, as the asparagus, this is the only way one can 
decide which are the true leaves, as in this case they are 
mere scales, while leaflike branches perform the function 
of leaves. 

The question of what becomes of the lateral buds may 
be decided best by examining two-year-old wood. We 
notice here that short branches have taken the place of 
some of the buds, others produce flower clusters, while 
a few remain dormant. These lateral branches are of 
varying lengths, some of them being so short as to be 
mistaken for buds. 

More than one leaf came from the original bud in the 
spring, and now there is formed at the end of each that 
did not produce flowers, no matter how short, a terminal 
bud for a continuation of the branch the next year. The 



68 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



more vigorous lateral branches are usually well out to- 
ward the end, while many of those lower down hive 

had a struggle to n:ake 
any growth at all. 

By examining still 
older wood, we shall 
find that many of these 




Fig. 8. — Pear Spur on Left, and Apple 
Spur on Right, showing Scars produced 
by Death of Part of Spur. 

short lateral branches are making a 
crooked growth. Something has hap- 
pened to the terminal bud, and the 
scars at the end show that a cluster of 
blossoms formed. This would termi- 




FiG. 9. — Once 
Fruit-spur. 



Buds 



69 




Fig. 10. — Opening 
Flower-buds on One- 
year-old Apple Spurs. 



Fig. 11. — Missouri 
(Pippin) showing 
Axillary Flower- 
buds. 



Fig. 12. — Mature 
Jonathan Ap- 
ples from Ax- 
illary Buds. 



nate the growth of the branch but for the develop- 
ment of buds lower down. These lateral buds develop 
branches that may grow one or more years in a straight 
line, when they in turn are stopped by the formation of 



70 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



a flower-bud. The continued repetition of flower-bud 
formation and the consequent development of lateral 
buds, together with slow growth, gives 
the peculiar crooked appearance to the 
fruit-spurs of apple and of pear trees. 

It has often been said that the large 
scars on fruit-spurs mark the place 
where a fruit was borne. One can only 
be sure that this is true when several 
smaller scars surround the larger one, 
thus showing that a blossom-cluster 
actual^ existed at the point. Short 
branches which have borne flowers very 
often die back to the main spur, thus 
producing a scar which is evidently 
often mistaken for those which are 
produced where fruits were attached. 
This is well shown in the case of both 
the apple and the pear in Figure 8, 
which is from a photograph. 

All of the branch-buds are alike in 
the beginning, but because of less ad- 
vantageous position as regards hght 
and food-supply some of them make 
little growth. Some of these restricted 
branches become fruit-spurs, and con- 
sequently we must conclude that slow 
growth is conducive to fruitfulness. 
Once a branch has become a fruit-spur, it usually 
retains this character, and some of them may be many 
years old and yet be only a few inches long. Never- 




FiG. 13. — Axillary 
Flower Clusters of 
Duchess Pear. 



Buds 71 

theless, the bearing habit of a tree may be easily 
changed, much to the owner's disadvantage, by severe 
pruning. If trees are heavily pruned, and particu- 
larly if a small crop of fruit is borne the following sea- 
son, many of the fruit-spurs may be forced into strong- 
growing twigs. Figure 9, from a photograph, shows such 
an instance. There are no fruit-buds now present and 
probably they will be produced only after two or more 
years, when growth becomes less vigorous. 

Fruit-buds of the apple and of the pear are usually 
terminal, but not always so. Neither must the fruit- 
spur be two or more years old before it may bear fruit. 
In fact, many varieties produce much of their fruit on 
one-year-old spurs and on the tip ends of twigs of the 
last season's growth. (See Fig. 10.) Many varieties 
also produce flower-buds in the axils of leaves on the 
growth of the current season, the same as the peach. 
(See Figs. 11, 12, 13.) These facts seem not to have been 
noticed by horticultural writers and no doubt this manner 
of fruit production is uncommon in the East. But under 
semi-arid conditions, where the conditions under which 
the trees grow are most artificial, such fruit formation is of 
common occurrence. The following tables show some of 
the varieties that bear fruit-buds in the axils of leaves and 
on one-year-old spurs; also the relation of such character- 
istics to annual bearing. 

Table II, showing varieties of apples that produce blossom-buds, 
on one-year-old spurs, on the ends of one-year-old spurs, terminal 
growths other than spurs, from the axils of leaves on the previous 
season's growth, and whether they are annual bearers : — 



72 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



Variety op Apple 


Bloom on 

One-year- 


Bloom on 
End op Last 
Year's Ter- 


Bloom in 
Axillary 
Buds on 


Annual. 
Bearer 




old Spurs 


Growths 
not Spurs 


Last Year's 
Growth 


Arkansas. . . . 


No 


No 


■ No 


No 


Astrachan . . . 


Yes 


No 


No 


No 


Bellflower . . . 


Few 


No 


Few 


No 


Ben Davis . . . 


Yes 


No 


Few, weak 


No 


Grimes .... 


Yes 


Yes 


No 


Yes 


Hyslop .... 


Yes 


Yes ' 


Yes 


No 


Jonathan. . . . 


Yes 


No 


Few 


No 


Mann 


Few 


No 


Yes 


No 


Mcintosh . . . 


Yes 


No 


No 


Yes 


Missouri (Pippin) . 


Yes 


No 


Yes 


No 


Newton .... 


Yes 


No 


No 


No 


Northern Spy . . 


Yes 


— 


No 


No 


Ralls 


Yes 


No 


No 


No 


Rome (Beauty) . 


Yes 


No 


No 


No 


Strawberry . . . 


Yes 


No 


Yes 


No 


Striped Lawyer . 


Few 


— 


* Yes 


No 


Transcendent . . 


Yes 


Yes 


Yes 


— 


W. Pearmain . . 


Few 


No 


Few, weak 


No 


Willow Twig . . 


Yes 


Yes 


No 


Yes 


Winesap .... 


Yes 


No 


Yes 


Yes 


Yellow Transparent 


Yes 


Yes 


No 


Yes 



Table III, showing varieties of pears that produce blossom-buds, 
on one-year-old spurs, on the ends of one-year-old spurs, terminal 
growths other than spurs, from the axils of leaves on the previous 
season's growth, and whether they are annual bearers : — 



Variety op Pear 


Bloom on 
One-year- 
old Spurs 


Bloom on 

End of Last 

Year's 

Growths 


Bloom in 

Axillary 

Buds on Last 

Year's 

Growth 


Annual 
Bearer 


AnJou .... 
Bartlett .. . . 
Duchess . . . 
Kieffer . . . 
Sheldon . . . 


Yes 

No 


Yes 


Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 

No 


Yes 
Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 



Buds 73 

The foregoing lists are very incomplete, but they serve 
to show that these methods of fruit-bearing are not un- 
common with the apple, and that the pear may also 
produce fruit-buds in the axils of leaves on the current 
season's growth. Further observations will no doubt 
change some of these determinations, and will certainly 
add much to the list. It is well known that varieties vary 
in their characteristics in different locahties, a few miles 
often being sufficient to show marked changes. These 
notes were made in Grand Junction, Colorado, so that ob- 
servers in other localities need not be surprised if their 
observations do not agree with these in all respects. 

While the capacity of a variety to produce annual 
crops is undoubtedly influenced by several factors, the 
table is of interest in indicating that the characteristic 
of fruit-bearing on one-year-old spurs is conducive to the 
production of annual crops. This is as might be ex- 
pected; and by examining older fruit-spurs we find that, 
when a fruit-bud has been produced, growth is stopped, 
and a lateral bud has developed into a branch and con- 
tinued the growth of the spur. This lateral is not or- 
dinarily terminated by a fruit-bud that year, for the 
supposed reason that the energies of the spur have been 
depleted in the production of flowers, and perhaps fruit 
as well, on the older part. We learn from this that fruit- 
spurs, as a rule, may bear fruit only every other year, 
but in reahty such regularity is far from being common. 

Bud-bearing on Stone-fruits 

When we undertook to write on the subject of buds, 
it was found that our observations did not agree in many 



74 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

respects with what has been pubhshed, and one of us 
(Mr. Whipple) made a study of the subject. These 
observations on bud characters and bearing habits of 
the stone-fruits are given below. 

The branch-buds of the peach, apricot, plum, and cherry 
differ little from those of the apple and pear. With the 
apricots and many of the plums, true terminal buds are 
rarely developed, while the lateral branch-buds of at least 
the first three may share their position in the axils of 
the leaves with one or more fruit-buds. In the peach, 
however, such a group of buds is generally developed in 
the axils of a cluster of three leaves. When the terminal 
bud is absent and the last lateral bud is a branch-bud, it 
continues the growth of the branch the following season, 
and, while the line of demarcation of each succeeding year's 
growth (as shown by the scars of the bud-scales) is not 
as pronounced as in twigs with terminal branch-buds, 
the continuation of the growth in a straight line is just 
as perfect. Quite often this last lateral bud is a fruit- 
bud, and later such twigs generally die back to a lateral 
branch developed from the last branch-bud. 

The fruit-buds of the peach, apricot, plum, and cherry 
differ from those of the apple and pear in that they are 
simple buds (each contains in miniature a modified branch 
which carries only flowers, no leaves, or at most only 
rudiments of leaves) , while the apple and pear have mixed 
fruit-buds. As the fruit-buds of the cherry and plum 
open, they often show one or two small leaves which rarely 
persist during the full season of fruit formation. The 
fruit-bud of the peach and apricot normally carries a 
single flower, sometimes two; that of the cherry from one 



Buds 



75 



11 



to five, two the prevailing type; and that of the plum 
from one to five, two and three being the most common 
numbers. With few exceptions, the 
fruit-buds of these four stone-fruits 
are developed laterally and in the 
axils of leaves; occasionally a termi- 
nal fruit-bud may be found in the 
cherry. In the stone-fruits, then, 
the fruit-buds are developed in the 
axils of leaves of the current year's 
growth and the fruit is borne on one- 
year-old wood. 

An examination of the fruiting 
wood of the peach will show that the 
fruit-buds are borne singly with a 
branch-bud, or in pairs with a branch- 
bud. (See Fig. 14.) With trees mak- 
ing a satisfactory growth, the latter 
is the more common. Their position 
upon the twig is determined more 
or less by the general growth of the 
tree; the stronger the growth the 
nearer the tips will they be found. 
With trees making a moderate 
growth, the majority of the fruit- 
buds will be found along the central 
portion of the season's growth and 
in pairs, one on either side of a 
branch-bud. On twigs making a 
weak growth they more often appear ^^^ 14. -Flower-buds 
singly and along the entire length of of Peach. 



76 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



the season's growth, while with young trees making a rank 
growth they will be found only scattering near the tips of 
the twigs. Thus, like the apple, the 
formation of fruit-buds in the peach 
is apparently incited by slow growth; 
they are developed during a period 
when there is least increase in length 
of the twig. 

In its fruiting habit, 
the apricot Ls very much 
Hke the peach. Fewer 
fruit-buds are found on 
the stronger-growing new 
wood, however, and a 
larger proportion on 
short, spurlike, new 
growths. Often these 
spurs on the apricot are 
so short and bear buds 
so close together that we Fig 
are liable to think of 

them as being different from other fruiting wood, 
but they do not differ materially. They are simply 
short, new growths bearing axillary fruit-buds gen- 
erally borne singly, rather than in groups, as is the 
case on the stronger-growing new twigs. The 
last lateral bud is a branch-bud in most cases, and 
continues the growth of the spur the following 
season. Unhke the peach, the groups of buds are 
developed in the axil of a single leaf. (See Fig. 15.) 

The different cherries are quite uniform in their fruit- 




15; — Flower- 
Apricot. 



buds of 



Buds 



77 



bearing habits. Few fruit-buds are 
found on the stronger-growing new 
wood, the short spurs being the fruit- 
bearing part of the tree. Like the 
apricot, these spurs are new growths 
bearing axillary fruit-buds, and with a 
few exceptions a terminal branch-bud. 
Figure 16 shows the type of fruiting 
wood of the sweet cherry. Below 
each side bud on spurs or stronger 
new wood will be found a leaf-scar, 
and as each spur is almost invariably 
supplied with a terminal branch-bud, 
observe the absence of crooks noted in 
the spurs of the apple and the pear. 
The figure also shows some strong 
new growth, with rounded fruit-buds 
near the base and the more pointed 
branch-buds near the tip ; these branch- 
buds will later develop into fruit-spurs 
hke those on the older wood below. 
The fruiting wood of the sour cherry 
differs httle from that of the sweet. 
Some varieties, however, produce many 
axillary fruit-buds on the long, new 
growth. These develop into flowers 
the following spring, and as these 
spurs are annual in duration, they are 
shed at the close of the season. No 
lateral branch-buds being developed, this results in long, 
naked branches, the only leaf or fruit-bearing wood being 



Fig. 16. — Flower- 
buds of Sweet 
Cherry. 



78 



Fruit-Growing in Arid Regions 



on the 
peach 



new growth at the end. (See Fig. 17.) With the 
and the apricot the fruit-bud is quite readily dis- 
tinguishable from 
the branch-bud, 
but with the 
cherry the fruit- 
bud can hardly 
be identified from 
external appear- 
ances. After the 
buds begin to 
swell in the 
spring, the fruit- 
buds have a more 
rounded or blunt 



new 
the 
the 




appearance; 

compare the f ruit- 

buds near the 

base of the 

growth in 

figure with 

b r a n c h-b u d s 

nearer the tip. 
The plums 

vary somewhat 

in their manner 

of fruit-bearing, 
in that the fruit- 
With some, the 
development of fruit-buds on the stronger-growing new 
wood is quite common, while with others it is rare. 



Fig. 17. — Flower- 
buds of Sour 
Cherry. 

but all are alike 
buds are axillary. 




Fig. 18. — Flower-buds 
of Domestica Plum. 



Buds 79 

Figure 18 shows the fruiting wood of the Silver Prune, 
and is a fair illustration of the fruiting habit of the 
Domestica plums (commonly called prunes). An exami- 
nation of the tip will show that the terminal bud is not 
a true terminal bud, but an axillary bud. The fourth 
spur from the top bears a single bud, which might be taken 
for a terminal fruit-bud, but it, too, is an axillary bud, as 
is shown by the leaf-scar below it. The Japanese plums, 
locally represented by such varieties as the Burbank, 
Abundance, Satsuma (Blood), and the Red June, resemble 
the apricot more in their manner of bearing fruit. The 
fruit-buds are still axillary, and like the apricot are found 
on both spurs and stronger-growing new wood, commonly 
appearing in the latter case, one on either side of a branch- 
bud. With some of the plums it is quite impossible 
to distinguish the dormant fruit-bud from the branch- 
bud, while with others they are easily identified. As 
with the other fruits, rampant growth seems to be adverse 
to the development of fruit-buds. 



CHAPTER VII 
PRUNING YOUNG TREES 

The writers have been impressed, when visiting the 
various fruit districts, by the lack of knowledge on the 
part of many growers of the requirements of young trees. 
No doubt a large majority of our fruit-growers have had 
no experience in the business, and so have everything to 
learn, and surely no part of orchard management is more 
important than to start the young trees just right. On 
this depends not only the future usefulness of the orchard, 
but in many instances large numbers of young trees fail 
to live through the first season for the simple reason that 
they are not properly started. In several instances the 
writers have been asked to investigate the cause of the 
dying of newly planted trees, and on visiting the orchard 
it was found that the trees were planted just as they had 
been received from the nursery. No doubt some of them 
had been injured somewhat by exposure and improper 
care, but with the best of treatment it is difficult for the 
mutilated root system of a transplanted tree to estabhsh 
itself and at the same time support a vigorous or over- 
grown top. 

It is not generally realized that when a tree is taken from 
the nursery row, a large part of the root system is left in 
the ground. The balance between the roots and the top 
is thus destroyed, and obviously a part of the top should 

80 



Pruning Young Trees 81 

be removed. Practically all of the elements that nourish 
and build up a tree, except carbon, are taken from the 
soil by the roots in liquid form. This material is car- 
ried in the cell sap, mostly through the outer sapwood, to 
the leaves (Chapter V). Here the crude food materials 
are changed by the influence of the sunlight and the green 
substance of the leaves to a form that can be readily 
assimilated by the plant. This will illustrate, briefly, 
how important the roots are to the plant. 

Much of the elaborated food may be stored in the cells, 
especially in the fall, to be drawn upon at any time that 
the roots fail to supply the requisite amount. In trans- 
planting, the nursery tree is often deprived of one-half 
or more of its roots, and not only must it become estab- 
Hshed in the soil, but it must produce a large number of 
new roots before much new food can be supplied. In 
the meantime, the leaves begin to push out, and the re- 
serve food and moisture may all be used before the root 
system is in a condition to supply more. This will explain 
how newly planted trees may start into growth with ap- 
parent vigor, only to die later, when the reserve food and 
moisture is exhausted. By cutting back the tops, and thus 
reducing the number of buds, this supply is conserved, and 
thus the tree is tided over the critical time until root- 
hairs are formed. 

Is it any wonder, then, that the failure to cut back the 
tops of newly planted trees results in the death of many 
of them? This is especially true in the arid region, as the 
dry air and intense sunshine cause the young trees to dry 
out rapidly. 

It is also true that many nurserymen, as well as fruit- 

G 



82 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

growers, are careless in handling trees before they are 
planted. Not infrequently the roots are exposed for 
hours to the drying action of wind and sun. One must 
take the chances of such treatment from the nurserymen, 
but after the trees have been received by the grower, there 
is no excuse for neglect in this respect. The trees should 
be heeled-in deeply at once in damp soil, and when plant- 
ing, the work should be so arranged that the roots of each 
tree shall be exposed to the air the shortest possible time. 

All bruised and torn roots should be carefully removed 
and cut back to healthy tissue, leaving smoothly cut ends 
that will readily heal; if this is not done, decay is hkely to 
set in, which may seriously injure the tree. Long, strag- 
gling roots may well be shortened, and any tangled mass 
of fine roots should be shortened and thinned. 

It would seem to be almost superfluous to insist on the 
importance of having all nursery stock inspected by the 
county inspectors, yet there are persons who try each 
year to evade the law in this respect. There are several 
insect pests and plant diseases which are very common 
on young trees, all of which may be easily overlooked by 
any one who is not thoroughly famihar with them. It is 
quite useless to spend much effort in pruning and caring 
for diseased trees. 

The woolly aphis is such an insect, and it is doing a great 
amount of damage in all sections. This insect lives on the 
roots, and is introduced into orchards almost wholly by 
infected nursery stock. When once established, it spreads 
rapidly and is almost impossible to eradicate. 

Crown-gall is a common disease in many nurseries, 
and it attacks all kinds of fruit trees. It is the worst kind 



Pruning Young Trees 83 

of folly to plant a tree that has a trace of this disease, 
for not only is the tree almost sure to die before it comes 
into full bearing, but the infection may be spread by the 
Cultivator or in the irrigation water to all parts of the 
orchard. 

A statement previously published by the writers, on 
the subject of inspection, will bear repetition here: ''All 
possible assistance should be given the county inspectors 
in their inspection of nursery stock. In counties where 
many trees are being planted, sufficient assistance should 
be provided, so that there will be no possibility of any 
shipments being overlooked. And finally, some means 
should be devised whereby the importance of inspection 
can be impressed on the growers, since, in some instances, 
they antagonize the inspectors and hinder their work. 
It is no doubt true that the inspection of nursery stock 
alone, if well done, pays many times over for all the ex- 
pense incurred, even in those counties which expend the 
most money in orchard inspection." 

But in those localities where several hundred thousand 
trees are planted each spring, the inspectors are so rushed 
with their work that the most careful men are liable to 
overlook an occasional infected tree; therefore no grower 
can afford to be unfamiliar with these common pests. 
Each tree should be reinspected as it is planted, and to 
make the work thorough the roots should be dipped in 
water so as to remove any dirt that might conceal small 
galls or a few aphids. 

In this discussion it is presumed that the planting is 
done in the spring, as this is nearly the universal practice 
in the arid region. 



84 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

It should also be stated here that the requirements of 
apple trees have been foremost in mind in the following 
pages. The same principles will apply, however, to all 
other kinds of fruit, with the possible exception of the 
peach. 

High and Low Heads; Sun-scald 

The proper formation of the top is by no means the least 
important reason for cutting back the branches of newly 
planted trees. In the first place, the importance of low- 
headed trees for this climate cannot be too strongly 
emphasized. Hundreds of trees are dying in all parts of 
the West because of the exposure of the long trunks to the 
afternoon sun, either directly or by reflection, from hot 
dry soil in summer or from snow in winter. Young 
trees are especially liable to injury, which results in early 
death or a weak, sickly growth, from which they never 
recover. There is less injury from sun-scald in the hu- 
mid states, but in those districts many authorities are 
advocating lower-headed trees. 

In addition to forming low heads, there can be no 
question but that it pays still further to protect the trunks 
of newly planted trees from injury by sun-scald. Various 
devices are used, such as wrapping the trunks with burlap, 
paper, straw, wood veneer, or by shading the trunk on the 
southwest side with a thin piece of board set upright in 
the ground. Whitewashing the young trunks to serve 
the same purpose has come to be extensively used in some 
sections. Whatever method is adopted, it should be 
employed soon after the trees are planted and continued 
in good condition through the second winter, or until the 
shade of the trees becomes ample. 



Pruning Young Trees 



85 



The advantages of low-headed trees may be stated to 
be greater ease in picking, thinning, pruning, and spraying, 
and less damage to trees and fruit from winds. Some 



w 



m:^:m 






Fig. 19. — Low-headed Trees, with Ascending Branches. Paonia, 
Colorado. 

growers object to low-headed trees on account of the 
greater difficulty of cultivating around them, but with 
proper training low-headed trees develop ascending 



86 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

branches, as shown in Figure 19. There is not the shght- 
est difficulty in working around the trees in this orchard, 
whereas the branches on high-headed trees commonly 
droop after they have borne a full crop of fruit, and so 
interfere with all orchard management. 

The following extract is taken from Bailey's '^Prun- 
ing-Book": ^'The relative merits of high or low heads 
for fruit trees are always in dispute. This controversy 
is partly the result of confusion of ideas and partly of 
differing mental ideals and of varying climates. Two 
factors are chiefly concerned in these disputes — the 
question of ease of cultivation, and the question of injury 
to the trunk by sun-scald. It is the commonest notion 
that short trunks necessarily make low heads, and yet any 
one who can see a tree should know better. The number 
of the trunks which a tree has does not determine the 
direction of the leaf-bearing limbs. This tree [referring 
to illustration] can be worked around as easily as it could 
be if it only had one long trunk. In fact, branches which 
start high from a trunk are very apt to become horizontal 
and droop. There must be a certain number of scaffold 
limbs to form the head. If these limbs are taken out 
comparatively low, they may be trained in an upright 
direction and hold their weight and position. If they 
are started out very high, they will not take such an up- 
right direction, because the tree will not grow beyond its 
normal stature. High-trained trees are often practically 

lowest-headed." 

Form of Tree 

The business of Western orcharding is not old enough 
to have developed systems of pruning that may be said 



Pruning Young Trees 87 

to be characteristic of the region. The conditions exist- 
ing in the fruit districts have been so favorable for the 
production of fine fruit that the growers have not felt 
the need of the finest development of the art. We have 
grown fine fruit whether we would or no. But now that 
competition is more severe, and insects and diseases are 
multiplying, more attention must be given to methods 
and systems of culture. 

In training trees, one of two ideals must be adopted, 
known as the pyramidal and vase forms. The former 
preserves the leader, which is made to form a central 
shaft to the tree. This style has the advantage of more 
bearing surface, as the leader grows and in time forms 
a ^Hwo-storied" tree. The objections to tall trees are 
apparent, and need not be discussed here. But it should 
be mentioned that under our conditions some difficulty 
is experienced in securing a good distribution of bearing 
wood. Some varieties, as the Gano and Ben Davis, are 
inclined to produce too many branches, and because of 
their position they make a weak growth and produce 
inferior fruit. Eventually the best fruit is produced at 
the top of the tree. 

The leader is done away with in the vase form, and a 
few limbs, usually not more than five, are chosen to form 
the top. A more or less open-centered tree is thus formed, 
but by skillful pruning this space is occupied by branches 
of bearing wood. Very tall trees are thus avoided, but 
what is more important, such trees are not so likely to be 
destroyed by blight, as recently pointed out by M. B. 
Waite. Death to trees results when the blight germs gain 
entrance to the trunks and larger limbs. Such attacks 



88 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

are usually brought about by the presence of small limbs, 
water-sprouts, or fruit-spurs, which become diseased, and 
which the germs follow till the main trunk or branch is 
reached. Should the leader of a pyramidal tree be at- 
tacked seriously enough to necessitate its removal, the 
tree would be ruined, but by having several main branches 
or trunks, one of them might be spared without seriously 
crippling the tree. But the protection may be carried 
still further by keeping the main branches of the vase- 
shaped tree free of all small limbs and fruit-spurs which are 
so susceptible to attacks of blight. In any event, one 
important essential with the vase-form training consists 
in keeping the center of the tree well supplied with good 
bearing wood. 

Shaping the Newly Planted Tree 

The term ''low-headed" is a relative one, but a top may 
be considered low when the first branch is 30 inches 
from the ground. Some of our successful growers prefer 
higher heads than this, while others start them lower. 
Our own preference is for a trunk about 20 inches in 
height. But whatever height is determined on, the tree 
must be cut back, preferably just after it has been planted. 

Should the tree be supplied with suitable limbs at the 
point where the head is desired, three to five of them, 
properly spaced, should be chosen to form the frame- 
work of the tree. The others are removed. The selected 
branches should then be shortened-in to a sound bud 
within 12 or 14 inches of the main stem. But ordinarily 
the lower branches are pruned off in the nursery, so that 
we seldom secure a tree from which suitable branches 



Pruning Young Trees 89 

may be chosen. In this case the entire top should be 
removed without regard to branches, making the cut a 
foot to 18 inches above the point where the lowest limb 
is wanted. In doing this, it is expected that branches 
will push out below in sufficient numbers so that suitable 
selections may be made. For this reason, strong yearling 
trees are always preferable to older ones. Should suitable 
branches fail to grow, one of the lower branches that 
nearly always form must be developed to form a new head. 

The trees should be gone over several times during the 
first summer to remove surplus shoots, and especially 
those that push out far below the point where the lowest 
branch is wanted. Occasionally some of the upper 
branches develop a vigorous growth at the expense of the 
others. These should be headed-back so as to give all 
a chance to develop, otherwise some of the important 
scaffold limbs may be found to be very weak at the close 
of the season. 

When a branch is headed-back, great pains should be 
taken to make a slanting cut just above a sound bud. 
A sharp knife is better for this purpose than the pruning 
shears, for the reason that on small limbs a cleaner, sharper 
cut can be made. The cut should be started a little below 
the bud, and with one movement the blade is brought out 
just above the bud. This will leave a small surface ex- 
posed to the possibilities of drying out, and the wound 
is not close enough to the bud to injure it. If the cut is 
made too far above, the stub will die back at least as far 
as the bud, and often farther. If made too close, the 
bud may be so injured that a stub is formed that will 
die back at least to the next sound bud. 



90 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

The position of the buds on the branches is of consid- 
erable importance in pruning. For example, one would 
not expect a bud situated on the lower side of a nearly 
horizontal limb to develop an upright growth compar- 
able to one on the upper side. In general, then, one 
should cut off the branches just above a bud that points in 
the general direction it is hoped the branch will take. 
One cannot hope to overcome varietal growth entirely, 
but it may be modified. By cutting to outside buds, the 
upright-growing kinds may be spread somewhat, and simi- 
larly the spreading varieties may be contracted by cutting 
to inside buds. 

As soon as the trees are planted, the top should be cut 
back as described above. With yearling trees a profusion 
of branches will be pushed out, the lowest of which should 
be removed or cut back to one or two buds. By the time 
these branches begin to grow, the roots are estabhshed, 
and new ones formed, so that an adequate supply of food 
materials is provided. It will be remembered, however, 
that the plant cannot use these materials until they have 
been made over into food in the leaves. It is for this 
reason that a large leaf surface is necessary; and this sur- 
face is also desirable to afford shade protection from the 
sun. 

The kind of top which the tree is to assume is de- 
veloped with the first season's pruning, which should be 
begun in most sections not earlier than the first of March. 
If performed earlier, a longer time must elapse before the 
wounds can heal, and necessarily the cut surfaces are ex- 
posed that much longer to the drying action of the sun, 
wind, and frost. It is commonly understood among 



Pruning Young Trees 91 

orchardmen that trees must not be pruned when the wood 
is frozen. Pruning when the trees are in this condition 
often results in bad wounds and the dying back of branches, 
but this result is probably due to the agencies just men- 
tioned rather than to the fact that the wood was frozen. 
In any case the rule is a good one to follow. Then, too, 
there is always more or less danger from winterkilling 
after the time when early pruning is done, so that the 
trees would need to be gone over a second time. 

From three to five limbs are now chosen to form the 
framework of the tree, which should be cut back about 
twelve inches from the trunk. The remainder are re- 
moved. If the lowest branch has been taken out at 
twenty inches from the ground, the highest branch should 
be at least a foot above it; two feet would be better. A 
common mistake is to cut trees back too far, thus crowding 
the branches, as shown in Figure 19. Neither were these 
branches thinned-out nor headed-in during the first season, 
but were all allowed to develop into leaders. This latter 
mistake often results in long, willowy branches that droop 
with a load of fruit; and this is the main reason for con- 
demning low-headed trees. 

Many growers carry their pruning up to this point suc- 
cessfully, but fail to head-in the first season's growth, and 
so miss one of the critical points in the proper formation 
of the top. (Fig. 20.) 

It is a common notion that the branches gradually get 
higher from the ground as the trees continue to grow. 
The apparent gain in height is due solelj^ to the increase 
in diameter of the limbs, which soon begin to crowd if suffi- 
cient space has not been left between them. The centers 



92 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



of the limbs will always remain the same distance apart, 
so in forming the head one should have in mind what the 
appearance of the Hmbs will be when they have attained 
a diameter of six or more inches. 

Second year. — It may be regarded as a rule, that when 
a Hmb is cut back, unless the cut is made just above 

a strong lateral, two or more 
branches will start near the cut 
end, and some of the buds lower 
down will develop into shoots. 
The usual practice is to allow 
two of these to grow on each 
of the previous year's limbs to 
form additional framework for 
the tree. The two chosen 
should be some distance apart, 
one at the end and one farther 
back, and so placed that the 
formation of crotches will be 
impossible. They are now cut 
back from a half to two-thirds 
of their growth, and the laterals 
are shortened to one or two 
buds, so that they may later 
develop fruit-spurs and also 
shade the branches with their clusters of leaves. If too 
many have formed, some of them should, of course, be re- 
moved. On the other hand, if we are to develop Waite's 
idea of making the tree more resistant to bhght, these 
laterals should all be removed and so carry the fruit-bearing 
wood farther away from the trunk and main branches. 




Fig. 20. — Yearling Whip, prop- 
erly Headed- back when 
planted, but improperly 
trained and Annual Prun- 
ing neglected. 



Pruning Young Trees 93 

Some growers object to heading-in trees at all, for the 
reason that all of the buds are likely to develop into 
branches and so the formation of fruit-spurs is retarded 
and the surplus branches must be cut out. But it is 
highly desirable that all of the buds should develop, and 
then by heading them back to spurs, as just mentioned, 
the formation of fruit-spurs is largely under control of the 
pruner. 

Any tendency toward one-sidedness may be corrected 
to some extent, and open spaces filled in by choosing 
branches that are already growing in the general direction 
of the vacancy. Then, by cutting to a bud that is on the 
side toward the opening, such faults may be gradually 
overcome. 

Third year. — The framework of the tree should now 
be well formed, so that it will require less attention from 
this time on. Surplus branches and those that rub or 
are inclined to form crotches should be removed. Very 
vigorous growths should also be headed-in. 

Amplication to pyramidal trees. — Thus far our discus- 
sion has been confined to the shaping of open or vase- 
formed trees. If a leader is desired, the treatment is 
practically the same, except that the upper shoot is 
allowed to grow with little heading-in. Branches are 
allowed to develop on this leader at proper intervals, using 
the same care as to location, pruning, and development 
as in the former case. 

A Study of Examples 

A discussion of some photographs of actual experience 
in pruning young trees will help to review and fix the 



94 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



points of the different stages. These were second-grade 
trees, and were evidently three years old when planted. 
The lower laterals had all been pruned away in the nursery, 
so that the tops were much too high for this climate. 
There was also difficulty in getting branches to form at 




21 



21a 
Fig. 21. 



216 
Shaping the Top. 



21c 



suitable places from which to make the selections for the 
head. However, the results are much better than if 
the tops had been left as received from the nursery, as 
is so often done. 

The trees in Figures 21, 22, and 23 were all headed-back 
to about 24 inches in April, 1904. This left them mere 



Pruning Young Trees 



95 



stubs. Had there been any laterals below this point, they 
would have been pruned back to single buds, so that 
clusters of leaves might have formed, and thus provided 
shade for the trunks. These pictures show how the trees 
looked in April, 1905, at the time of the first pruning. 




22 a 22 6 

Fig. 22. — Shaping the Top. 



22 c 



No. 21 had formed five vigorous branches, No. 22 produced 
four, and No. 23 but two. 

The five branches on No. 21 were saved to form a frame- 
work for the tree and were cut back to about one foot in 
length. These are well distributed about the trunk, but 
have the fault of being too close together. The lowest 



96 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



limb might well be double the dist'knce from the top that 
it now is. No. 21 a shows No. 21 after it was piimed, with 
the idea of making an open-centered tree. 

The objection also apphes to No. 22 that the limbs are 




23 6 
Failure. 



too close. All of these were saved to form the framework 
of a tree with a leader, as is shown in No. 22 a. The only 
difference between this and No. 21 a is that the topmost 
branch was left longer than the others. , The pruner of this 
tree is open to severe criticism because he allowed three 
vigorous limbs to grow from near the surface of the ground. 



Pruning Young Trees 



97 



These limbs could serve no useful purpose, and so only rob 
the other limbs of plant-food. Such growths are best pre- 
vented by pinching off the buds early in the season. 

Tree No. 23 failed to throw out enough branches to form 
a suitable top. The two branches are 
nearly opposite, so that a bad crotch would 
soon result. Both branches were cut back 
to the second bud, as shown in 23 a in the 
hope of inducing dormant buds to push 
out lower down. 

Tree No. 24 shows one of this lot of 
trees that was left unpruned. Notice the 
weak, spindling growth and short laterals, 
as compared with the others. There is 
small chance of making a satisfactory tree 
from such a specimen, even though it 
should live. Such illustrations as this, 
which may be seen on every hand, should 
prove to any one that all trees should be 
headed-back when planted, if for no other 
purpose than to induce a vigorous growth. 

At the close of the season of 1905 the 
pruned trees had made the growths shown 
in 21 6, 22 6, and 23 6. 

Pruning should, of course, be done in 
late winter or early spring, but these trees 
were pruned for the purpose of illustra- 
tion, and the results are. shown in 21c, 22 c, and 23 c. 
Tree No. 21 has now taken the form shown in 21 c. One 
of the scaffold limbs seemed to be superfluous, so it was re- 
moved, and the new growth, shown in Figure 216, was cut 



X-= 



Fig. 24. — Neg- 
lected. 



98 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

back about one-half. The few side shoots were cut back 
to a single bud, with the idea of developing fruit-spurs. 
In the season of 1906, numerous branches should develop 
on all of these scaffold limbs. As a rule, two of the best 
placed of these secondary limbs will be chosen on each of 
the main scaffold limbs to form additional framework. 
The remainder may be removed or cut back to develop 
fruit-spurs, as may seem best. 

The form of the tree, then, should be developed at the 
beginning of the season of 1907, and subsequent pruning 
should be directed toward retaining this shape, cutting 
back excessive growths and thinning and renewing the 
bearing wood. 

The pruning of tree No. 22 is much the same, except that 
a leader is being developed. Fig. 22 c shows that, although 
the top was cut back the same as tree No. 21, the topmost 
branch is developing into a vigorous central shaft. The 
first set of scaffold limbs has been formed, and a second set 
is to be developed at a suitable distance above. The new 
growth is to be cut back, as has been described. 

The tree shown in the series 23-23 c is, so far, practically 
a failure. The severe heading-in it received in the spring 
of 1905 failed to make branches start lower down. It 
would have been a better plan to have inserted two or three 
buds at suitable points around the main stem in June, 
1905. This can probably be done next June, but the 
chance for success is not so great. Limbs can be developed 
by this means just where they are wanted, but the average 
person will succeed better with trees that do not require 
such manipulation. 



Pruning Young Trees 99 

Subsequent Pruning 

The form of the young tree should be well established 
after the third season. From this time on the question of 
pruning is merely to retain, so far as possible, the form we 
have started, to prevent the formation of crotches and 
cross branches, to thin out an excess of branches so that 
sunlight may be admitted and the amount of bearing wood 
reduced and renewed. 

One of the peculiar effects of high altitude, with the ac- 
companying sunshine on plants, is that it induces fruitful- 
ness and early bearing. Many varieties of apples produce 
paying crops when the trees are six years old, and the tend- 
ency of young trees to overbear annually is pronounced. 
We therefore are rarely obliged to prune to induce fruitful- 
ness. Should such an occasion arise, the following should 
be borne in mind : Prune in summer to induce f ruitfulness, 
and in winter to promote wood growth. This is true 
for the reason that summer pruning checks the growth 
of the tree by removing a part of the leaf surface. An 
injury of any kind will have the same effect; likewise a 
weak-growing or sickly tree should be severely headed-in 
while still dormant in order to induce a vigorous top 
growth. 

Thin out the top every year. No general rule can be 
given, as each tree presents a different problem. A thick 
growth of branches results in weak-bearing shoots and^ 
spurs. And finally, when cutting back limbs on bearing 
trees, the cut should be made just above a strong lateral 
wherever possible. The tendency of the sap will be to 
flow into the lateral, and thus prevent the formation of 



100 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

numerous branches, which nearly always results when 
a so-called stub cut is made. 

A number of our best varieties of apples are likely to 
develop long, slender branches that may bend and rest on 
the ground; and, indeed, it is not uncommon for such 
branches to break under a load of fruit. Some of these 
kinds, as the Winesap, are very Hable to overbear periodi- 
cally as they get older, often to such an extent that the 
branches are broken with a load of undersized fruit. 
Such trees may require two seasons in which to recover 
from the effect of overbearing, but the third year the pro- 
cess may be repeated. A severe heading-in and thinning- 
out of the branches would largely correct these faults, 
and make it possible for the trees to bear annual crops of 
fine fruit. 

The orchard man should become well acquainted with 
the habit of growth of different varieties, as a few kinds 
grow slowly and will not bear heavy pruning. Others are 
erect growers and some are spreading. 

One cannot expect entirely to overcome such tendencies, 
but they may be corrected to a marked degree. The 
upright varieties may be spread somewhat by pruning to 
the outside laterals, and the spreading kinds may be con- 
tracted by cutting to those that have an inward direction; 
and by cutting back the vigorous growths each season, 
those two feet and more in length, the limbs are made 
stocky, thus in great measure doing away with drooping 
branches. However, we think that, under our conditions, 
it is advantageous in many ways to keep trees from be- 
coming very tall. This can be done only by intelHgent 
annual pruning. In Figure 25 is shown a photograph of a 



102 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

successful young Colorado orchard that has been severely 
headed-in. 

Thus far our discussion has had to do entirely with apple 
trees. The same principles apply to most of the other 
fruits, with the exception of those, like the peach, that 
bear fruit on last season's wood. The pear is pruned much 
the same as the apple, as are also the blue or domestica 
plums. The latter should be headed lower, and they re- 
quire much less attention after the character of the top 
has been formed. The sour cherry and red or cultivated 
varieties of American plums, require almost no pruning, 
except that the tops should be kept very low. 

Pruning Young Peach Trees 

The response of the young peach tree to proper pruning 
is even more marked than that of the apple; it seems to 
have a greater range of possibilities. In habit of fruit- 
bearing, the peach differs from the apple in the fact that 
its fruit-buds are axillary and not terminal. The fruit 
is borne on one-year-old wood (Chapter VI). As com- 
pared with the apple, the development of its fruit-buds 
is less easily influenced by overgrowth ; that the tree will 
stand more vigorous pruning than the apple is suggested by 
its habit of fruit-bearing and proved by experience. The 
grower should take advantage of this as a means of keep- 
ing his trees well within bounds. The excuse so often 
offered for heading the tree high no longer applies, for 
experience has shown that, if properly trained, the low- 
headed tree is no more difficult to work about than the 
high-headed tree (Figs. 19 and 26). 

The first important step in growing a young peach or- 



Pruning Young Trees 



103 



chard is a proper choice in nursery stock. Either a one- 
year-old bud or a June-bud is a very satisfactory tree to 
plant. The yearling bud is the type of tree grown in 
the northern nursery, and the top represents one season's 
growth from a bud set in August or September. It 




Fig. 26. — Low-headed Peach Trees, Mesilla Park, New Mexico. 

by Garcia. 



Photo 



possibly has the advantage of being a little stronger and 
better-matured than the June-bud, but it occasionally has 
the disadvantage of being overgrown, with head formed 
too high and the buds rubbed off below. 

The June-bud is a product of a climate with a long grow- 
ing season, and is the type of tree grown in the southern 
nursery. The top of the tree represents the growth of 
the remainder of the season from a bud set in June. It 



104 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



generally has the advantage of bemg headed lower, but 
occasionally, when received by the western grower, the 
upper part of the tree shows lack of vitality. This may 
be a matter of long shipment, and is probably due to con- 
ditions under which the tree is deUvered rather than to 
any inherent characters. 

The peach tree nearly always comes from the nurs- 
ery with the head already formed, that is, with lateral 
branches developed. The common 
practice is first to set the tree and 
then head-in the main stem to 
within 18 inches of the ground and 
the laterals to one or two buds. 
In the yearling tree, heading to 
18 inches may mean the removal 
of all laterals formed, but buds will 
generally start from below to form 
a well-balanced head. Leaving 
stubs of all the laterals insures a 
large leaf surface for the first sea- 
son, provides for the protection of 
the body from the sun's rays, and 
supplies a goodly number of strong limbs from which to 
choose those to form the head of the tree. 

The first spring after setting, the pruning will consist 
in thinning out the new wood to not over 5 arms well 
spaced around the entire trunk, and cutting these back 
to 12 or even less inches in length. Should some of the 
arms be inclined to crowd toward the center, cutting to a 
good strong outside branch may be of service in spread- 
ing the tree. When pruned for its second year's growth, 




Fig. 27. — Poor Head on 
Young Peach. The 
Result of Pruning for 
Fruit. 



Pruning Young Trees 



105 



the peach tree should not be over 3 feet in height (more 
often 2), and the tree will consist of a main trunk with 3 
to 5 limbs from 8 to 12 inches in length. This is severe 
pruning for a peach tree that has made a good growth, 
but it will pay in the end. 




Fig. 28.— The Same as Fig. 27 after One Season's Growth. 



The second spring after planting, the head will need 
some thinning-out and cutting-back. Pruning the two- 
year-old orchard for fruit is a common mistake; it is 
impossible to prune such a tree properly and leave fruit- 
buds on it. The more rapid the growth of new wood the 
nearer the tips will the fruit-buds be found; practically 
all the fruit-buds on a two-year-old tree that has been 



106 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 




Fig. 29. — Two-year- 
old Peach Tree 
well Pruned. 



properly pruned as a yearling will be in the top of the 
tree. Figure 27 shows the style of pruning that must be 
adopted to leave even a few of these 
buds. With such pruning it is impos- 
sible to grow a well-shaped peach tree. 
The result of such practice is well 
illustrated in Figure 28, which shows 
the same tree after one year's growth. 
Note the tall, '4eggy" tree with very 
little spread. While the tree may not 
have been an ideal two-year-old, there 
is no excuse for growing it into such an ill-shaped three- 
year-old. Figure 29 shows a two-year-old tree pruned for 
shape rather than fruit, 
while Figure 30 shows 
the same tree before 
pruning, and Figure 31 
after one season's 
growth. Before prun- 
ing, this two-year-old 
stood 5 feet high, after 
pruning 30 inches, and 
at the end of the third 
season it stands 6 feet 
in height. Compare 

this broad, well-formed ^'°- ^°- ~ ^^^^ ^^ ^9 before Pruning. 

top with the one pruned for fruit. Had it not been for 
severe injury from attacks of twig borers, this tree would 
have made a much better top ; the figure shows many dead 
stubs, and a close examination will show that the upper 
arm, as shown in the center and to the back of Figure 29, 




Pruning Young Trees 



107 



was lost entirely on account of the borers checking the 
young growths as they started. This is a loss of prac- 
tically one third of the top, and well illustrates the advan- 
tage of leaving the fourth arm which appears in the fore- 
ground, and which must now be developed to take the 
place of the stronger one which came to the untimely end. 




Fig. 31. — Same Tree as Fig. 29 but One Year later. 



In Figure 31 is shown a tree after three years' growth in 
the orchard with sufficient fruiting-wood to produce a 
box of fruit the fourth season, and with this wood so 
placed that it may be left without interfering with proper 
formative pruning. The center of the tree presents a 
brushy appearance, which is largely due to a secondary 
growth forced by the borers checking the terminals early 
in summer. On account of this abnormal growth, the 
tree carries an unusually small number of fruit-buds low 
down. While the spraying of the young orchard is often 



108 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

neglected, this tree should sound a warning to the proud 
possessor of a promising young peach orchard. 

To secure the top well spread and the fruiting-wood 
near the ground, it is necessary to prune severely and 
possibly to outside buds or branches. As a rule the two- 
year-old tree should not stand higher than four feet after 
pruning. A tree pruned in this way and kept growing 
thriftily will produce very few fruit-buds for the follow- 
ing year's crop. With moderate growth produced by 
judicious watering, the young tree may carry a few speci- 
mens in its third season and produce a good supply of 
fruit-buds for the following season. The young tree will 
do well to produce a box of fruit the fourth season, with an 
increase of 2 boxes per year for the next 7 years. The 
peach orchard will rarely more than hold its own after 
the twelfth year, but individual trees well formed and 
well pruned may occasionally yield as high as 20 boxes 
of fancy fruit per year. 

In pruning the peach trees set as fillers in the apple 
orchard, a more moderate system might well be adopted. 
The second and third spring prunings should be light, 
hardly more than a little thinning-out. The extra amount 
of wood left will tend to check the rampant growth of the 
tree and encourage the formation of flower-buds. While 
it means a sacrifice as regards the shape and profitable 
bearing life of the tree, early bearing is, in this instance, 
more to be desired than long life. Peach trees set as 
fillers should never reach maturity. Heavy watering, 
however, may counteract light pruning, and the grower 
may easily defeat the purpose of the pruner by forcing 
the growth. 



Pruning Young Trees 109 

By the end of the third season the form of the peach 
tree should be well established, and from now on the 
pruning will be less severe. Many growers, however, 
still remove most of the frui ting-wood the following spring. 
The top should be cut back quite severely, but possibly 
more small wood left in the body of the tree than has ever 
been left before. In this and all subsequent prunings 
the pruner should encourage the growth of fruiting-wood 
well down in the head of the tree. While the head should 
be kept fairly open, this does not mean that fruit cannot 
be grown in the center of the tree. Some go to the 
extreme in growing a head with no central limbs; such a 
practice is simply a waste of space, necessitating an in- 
crease in the height of tree to secure the required bearing 
area. 

The fourth spring the peach tree will need considerable 
thinning-out and some cutting-back. The idea should 
be to thin the fruit by cutting out the fruiting wood, 
with such other pruning as will encourage the spreading 
of the tree and keep the fruiting area near the ground. 
The tree is coming to a point now where it is impossible 
to lay down any definite rules for pruning, and the grower 
will have to depend largely on his own judgment; and 
judgment comes only from experience and close observa- 
tion. With four years' growth in the orchard, the tree 
is practically mature, and subsequent pruning will be 
discussed in general in Chapter VIII. 

The story of the two trees, as told by the drawings 
taken from actual photographs (Figs. 27 to 31 inclusive), 
should serve to guide the pruner in pruning his young 
peach orchard. The owner of the first will soon be pick- 



110 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

ing from the top of a 12-foot ladder, while the owner 
of the second would be ashamed to possess one over 6 
feet in height. The spread of the second tree will always 
exceed its height, which means that the angle at the lower 
point of a circumscribed triangle will always exceed 60°, 
and should rarely exceed 90°. 



CHAPTER VIII 
PRUNING MATURE TREES 

Many and varied are the excuses offered by the man 
who owns an unpruned orchard; he is ashamed of the 
neglected trees, and tries to justify himself by advancing 
what he considers, or more likely what he tries to persuade 
himself, is a good reason. One holds that pruning is 
little short of sacrilege, contrary to the laws of nature; 
another tells of h s fond recollections of childhood, and 
what excellent fruit he picked from the old apple tree, 
pruned alone by nature; another says it does not pay, 
and in his particular case it does not, for the chances are 
that the orchard is neglected otherwise. The only excuse 
that has any semblance of justification is that of igno- 
rance, and that does not excuse the man who makes no 
attempt. 

Nature's object is the production of seed, with pro- 
vision for its distribution, and she is satisfied when a 
cherry is produced with enough flesh to attract some 
fruit-loving bird that may, perchance, drop the seed far 
from the parent tree. Man grows the fruit for its fleshy 
parts, and tries to improve these parts, as much by plac- 
ing the plant in a more favorable environment as by 
plant-breeding and selection. The man who has the fond 
recollections of childhood would no doubt find them only 
childish fancies, as did the man who returned to his 

111 



112 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

childhood home to renew his boyhood coasting and found 
no place steep enough on which to slide. The man who 
cannot afford to prune cannot afford to grow fruit, and 
the man who does not know how to prune, must learn; 
the principles are not complicated. 

Physiology of Pruning 

To be an intelligent pruner one must know something 
of plant physiology. He should know the effects produced 
by pruning at different seasons of the year, how to make 
a cut that will heal most readily, and the influence of 
pruning on the fruit-bearing habit of the tree. 

It may be said that in the inter-mountain states the fruit- 
grower prunes at his leisure, but luckily this conforms 
rather closely to the proper season, when looked at from 
a physiological point of view. It is generally conceded 
that pruning in the dormant season incites wood growth, 
while pruning in the growing season promotes fruitful- 
ness; and, since our trees tend to overbear, it is logical 
for us to prune largely during the dormant season. 

Although it is said that pruning in the summer season 
may encourage the formation of fruit-buds on tardily 
bearing varieties, it may have the opposite effect, unless 
performed at the proper time, and may cause late growth 
and unfruitfulness. To give the desired results, one 
must summer-prune shortly before the season of growth 
ends; earlier pruning starts new growth, while late prun- 
ing gives no results. The benefit derived from summer 
pruning seems to depend on the ability of the orchard- 
man to prune at a time to bring about early maturity. 
In an irrigated section where soil conditions are easily 



Pruning Mature Trees 113 

controlled, the same end may be more easily attained, 
no doubt, by proper manipulation of the irrigation water. 

Both the season at which the wound is made and the 
character of the cut has an influence on the healing process. 
The pruner should remember that all food material 
capable of healing a wound is taking a downward course 
through the inner bark, and that to heal well, a wound 
must be in position to intercept the downward flow of sap 
from the f oh age. When a limb is to be removed entirely, 
the cut should be at the union with and parallel to the 
surface from which the limb arises. When limbs are to 
be headed-back, they should be cut to a side limb and not 
to a bare stub. Wounds naturally heal best when made 
at a season when growth is most active, but, with the 
possible exception of wounds made in early winter, and 
subjected to a long season of drying, the season at which 
the wound is made practically has no important bearing 
upon the healing process. The grower, who has a small 
orchard that will permit of such a practice, should delay 
the pruning until as near the opening of the growing season 
as possible. 

The influence of pruning on the fruit-bearing habit of 
the tree has been briefly mentioned, but the following 
pages will show how a fruit-bearing habit may, to a certain 
extent, dictate a course in pruning. The fruits with which 
this discussion has to deal have two general types of 
fruit-bearing:, from terminal fruit-buds and from axil- 
lary fruit-buds (Chapter VI). The first type of fruit- 
bud is well represented in the apple and pear and the 
latter in the stone-fruits. Trees that produce axillary 
fruit-buds are naturally more prolific and require severe 
I 



114 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

pruning as a means of thinning the fruit. In fact, a system 
of pruning under which the tree with axillary fruit-buds 
would thrive would cause the apple tree to overgrow to 
such an extent that it would be rendered almost barren. 
The point may be more fully illustrated by comparing the 
peach and the cherry. Although both develop axillary 
fruit-buds, they differ in their fruiting habits; the fruit- 
buds of the cherry are seldom found on the stronger- 
growing new wood, and severe pruning, as practiced on 
the peach, would throw much of the strength of the tree 
into the production of strong new wood that would carry 
very few fruit-buds. We have said that in the apple the 
type of fruit-bearing is from terminal buds, yet many 
varieties develop axillary fruit-buds. Varieties that de- 
velop axillary fruit-buds and bear terminal fruit-buds on 
young spurs all tend to overbear, and require severe 
pruning. To a certain extent, therefore, one can decide 
for himself how much to prune by observing how the tree 
bears its fruit. 

Treatment of Wounds 

The argument advanced in favor of dressing wounds is 
that it prevents decay and checks evaporation, both of 
which might interfere with the healing process. While 
in our arid climate the first is hardly applicable, the second 
should probably be doubly important. Yet the matter 
of dressing wounds is not so important but that work 
improperly done is worse than no treatment. A good 
lead paint is one of the most satisfactory dressings yet 
found. Rather a thick paint should be used, and care- 
less daubing of the surrounding bark should be avoided. 
Grafting-wax is a good dressing, but is rather expensive, 



Pruning Mature Trees 



115 



and difficult to apply. Other materials have been used, 
some successfully and some disastrously, and the grower 
is to be cautioned about experimenting; better adhere 
to materials known to be safe and efficient. Growers 
often overdo the matter and waste time in treating small 
wounds. Surely a wound less than one and one-half inches 
in diameter is not worth bothering with, if the wound 
is properly made. 

These suggestions apply to wounds made by the care- 
less cultivator as well as those made by the pruner. 
Unsightly wounds and permanent injury may often be 
avoided by proper treatment of trunk wounds. When 
the body of the tree is injured, the ragged edges of the 
bark should be pared off to sound tissue and the whole 
injury covered with paint or grafting- wax. If promptly 
done, this prevents drying out of the tissues, and new bark 
will readily form, except on parts where the outer wood 
cells are actually destroyed, and in time this will grow 
over. Wrapping the part with cloth, or, if 
it is near the ground, mounding earth up NlJiBfiiif 
over it, will often answer the same purpose. 

Pruning Tools 

Every pruner shou d be furnished with 
good tools; they encourage him to do good 
work. This does not necessarily mean that 
he must have every tool on the market, for 
many of them are useless; it does mean, 
however, that the ax and a dull saw have 
no place in the catalogue of pruning tools. 
The pruner needs a good sharp saw, a good 




116 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



pair of light shears, a pair of heavy shears, possibly a 
good heavy knife, and of course a good ladder. 

The two common types of saws found on the market are 

those shown in Figures 32 and 33. That shown in Figure 

32 is a good cheap saw, and will answer the 

purpose in many cases. A handle:^ saw is 

shown in Figure 33. The blade is stretched 

between swivels and can be turned to any 

angle. It is well adapted to close work in 

the crotches of the tree. This type of saw, 

of various makes, can generally be bought 

for three dollars. The 

blades are not as frail as 

they look, and seldom break 

if properly handled; they 

can be replaced at a cost of 

fifty cents. It is really the 

best type of pruning saw, 

and should be used more 

generally. 

A good type of hand shears is that 

shown in Figure 34. It is indispensable 

for light work. Various makes are on 

the market. Buy the one that appeals 

to you. A pair of heavy shears Hke 

those illustrated in Figure 35 is almost a necessity. 

They take the place of the saw in many cases, and 

will do the work in less time. They are used in heading- 

in hmbs where the saw can hardly be used. The peach 

pruner finds good use for them. They work well on 

limbs up to one and one-half inches in diameter. The 




Fig. 33. — Prun- 
ing Saw. 




Fig. 34. — Prun- 
ing Shears. 



Pruning Mature Trees 



117 




Fig. 35. — Heavy 
Pruning Shears. 



only objection the writers have to this tool is that the 

pruner sometimes gets careless and leaves stubs. There 

is a type of heavy shears on the market 

that has two cutting edges instead of 

one, but it seems to do no better work. 

The pruner finds very little use for 

a knife in pruning mature trees, and 

seldom carries a special pruning knife. 

Several types of the long-handled tree 

pruners are on the market, but they 

are of little value in the commercial 

orchard. The pruner should be close 

to his work, and with a good ladder 

and short-handled tools he will do better 

work. 

Pruning the Apple 

With the young orchard well grown (see Chapter VII), 
the pruner has probably solved the most difficult prob- 
lem in the pruning of the apple tree. The principles 
involved in the pruning of the old orchard are not com- 
pHcated. Nearly all our standard commercial varieties 
of apple tend to overbear in the Far West, and one of the 
first objects of the pruner should be to overcome this 
tendency; the more prolific the variety, the heavier the 
pruning. 

To be an intelligent pruner, one must also acquaint 
himself with the habits of growth of the different varieties 
as well as habits of fruit-bearing. Upright growers will 
require pruning to spread them, and straggling growers 
such heading-in as will make them grow more upright. 
The head should be kept reasonably open and well supplied 



118 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



with fruiting-wood throughout. The idea of the open 
head, however, can be overdone. (See Fig. 36.) 

Limbs that interfere or are hable to form bad crotches 
should be removed and the main branches headed-in, as 




Fig. 36. — Exaggerated Type of Open-centered Tree. 



the tree indicates the need by overbearing or by weak 
growth. Moderate annual prunings are always to be 
preferred to heavy pruning at irregular intervals; these 
heavy prunings tend to upset a regular bearing habit, and 
may bring on an '' off-year." However, if it should become 



Pruning Mature Trees 



119 



necessary to employ drastic measures in pruning the 
neglected orchard, do not be afraid to use them, but do 
not make the mistake of selecting an ^^ off-year" in which 
to do this heavy cutting. 




Fig. 37. — Jonathan well Headed-in. 



A discussion of the amount of pruning required by 
different varieties could almost as well be introduced 
here as that on the pruning of different kinds of fruit. 



120 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



Yet the growth of the tree, and necessarily the pruning, 
depend much more on soil conditions; and while it might 




Fig. 38. — Jonathan, growing Long, Weak Branches, due to Lack of 
proper Pruning. 



be possible, it would hardly be safe to lay down definite 
rules for the pruning of any particular variety. Both 



Pruning Mature Trees 121 

the Winesap and Missouri (Pippin) may be classed as 
prolific varieties that require severe pruning. The Jona- 




FiG. 39. — Ben Dayis Fifteen Years Old and ruined. Such Loss may be 
avoided by proper Pruning. 

than at the age of 11 or 12 years almost invariably begins 
to grow spindling in the top, and requires frequent cutting 
back to keep that tree in a thrifty condition. Figure 37 



122 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



shows a Jonathan tree well headed-in, with stocky growth, 
while Figure 38 is of a neglected tree of the same variety 
and of the same age. These willowy limbs bear small 




Fig. 40. — White Pearniain showing Type of Growth. 



leaves and an abundance of apples that rarely come up 
to size, and the liability of such neglected trees breaking 
down under a load of fruit is well shown in Figure 39. Fig- 
ure 37 shows how sprouts are largely avoided by cutting to 



Pruning Mature Trees 123 

side limbs. Varieties that bloom heavily but set very 
few fruits should be treated as varieties that overbear, and 
be pruned heavily during the dormant season. Varieties 
that refuse to develop fruit-buds should not be pruned 
excessively, at least not in the dormant season. 

An idea of the difference in growth and fruiting-habit of 
two varieties may be had by comparing Figures 37 and 40, 
Jonathan and White Pearmain. The White Pearmain 
is rather a strong grower and a variety that does not bear 
heavily on young spurs. The frui ting-spurs are distrib- 
uted along the larger limbs. Such a variety does not 
need a great deal of pruning. 

Summer pruning is supposed to incite fruitfulness, 
but does not always give uniform and satisfactory results. 
Unfruitful varieties may be forced to bear fruit more easily 
by withholding water in late summer, or, better still, 
if the fault is known, plant them on a light soil; poor 
bearers are nearly always strong growers, and very often 
a shy bearer on heavy soils is prolific on a gravelly hill- 
side. The Yellow Newtown is a striking example of a 
variety of this type. The growth and fruiting-habit of 
the tree determine largely what treatment it shall receive 
at the hand of the pruner. While pruning may not take 
the place of thinning entirely, it may be employed as a 
means of correcting the faults of alternate bearing and of 
overbearing. 

Pruning the Apricot 

In the general growth and fruiting-habit of the tree, 
the apricot occupies a position between the cherry and 
the peach. The fruit-buds are developed in the axils 
of leaves on both shortened, spur-like twigs and on the 



124 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

stronger-growing branches, both of the current season's 
growth. These fruiting-spurs of the apricot differ from 
those of the cherry in the fact that they develop no 
true terminal buds. The apparent terminal of the new 
growth is a lateral bud and may be either a fruit-bud or a 
branch-bud. It is generally a branch-bud, but it is not 
uncommon to find weak spurs bearing only fruit-buds, and 
such spurs, with no branch-buds to continue their growth, 
must perish at the close of the fruiting season. 

The general plan of pruning the apricot resembles that 
followed in pruning the peach, although, as a rule, the 
cutting should be hardly as severe. The young tree is a 
strong grower, and must be put through about the same 
course of training as the young peach. . This strengthens 
or stiffens the framework and develops a broad, low- 
headed tree. Normally the tree does not grow as much 
new wood as the peach, and it is often possible to do the 
greater part of the pruning by simply heading-in the 
strong growth. The pruning should be sufficient to keep 
the fruiting-wood growing thriftily and the tree well 
within bounds. 

While to a certain extent pruning reduces the labor of 
hand thinning, it will not take its place entirely. If prop- 
erly thinned, the apricot will stand much neglect as 
regards pruning, but proper pruning is a matter of econ- 
omy. As the tree grows older it will need more severe 
pruning to force new fruiting-wood in the center. The 
absence of fruiting-wood in the center of the carelessly 
pruned apricot tree is even more pronounced than in the 
neglected peach tree. The top should be well spread and 
the fruiting area of the head maintained near the ground. 



Pruning Mature Trees 125 

While the season for pruning the apricot generally 
extends through February and March, summer pruning 
is rather extensively practiced on the Pacific coast, where 
the trees are headed-in as soon as the crop is harvested. 
This starts the smaller laterals into stronger growth, and 
they develop an abundance of fruit-buds. Limited obser- 
vations of the same system employed in the inter-mountain 
cHmate suggest that it may not be without merit here. 
While this late growth is inclined to be immature and 
may suffer from severe winter freezing, it is more desirable 
from the standpoint of late blooming. Fruit-buds on this 
immature wood open four to five days later than those on 
mature wood. This may frequently be an advantage in 
locahties where late spring frosts are not uncommon. 
The advisability of such a practice has not been fully 
demonstrated, and is given only as a suggestion. 

Pruning the Cherry 

The man who objects to pruning, vowing homage to 
nature, should grow cherries, for there is no fruit-tree of 
which it may be said that nature is a more efficient 
pruner. In fact, it is a common impression among 
fruit-growers that the mature cherry tree needs no 
pruning. This condition, however, is more largely due 
to indifference on the part of the markets than to an 
inabihty to secure results from pruning. When compe- 
tition becomes more keen, fancy grades of cherries will 
gain in popularity and, as in the growing of other fancy 
fruits, pruning will be found to be expedient. 

In the cherry the fruit is borne on one-year-old wood and 
mostly on short growths or spurs. An examination of 



126 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

the spurs will show that they differ from those of the 
apple in carrjdng both terminal and axillary buds, the 
terminal, with few exceptions, being a branch-bud, and 
those developed in the axils of the leaves mostly fruit- buds. 
Fruit-buds are also found as axillary buds near the base 
of the stronger-growing new wood. The cherry, then, 
has a fruiting-habit which would indicate that the tree 
will stand only moderate .pruning. Trees overpruned 
produce an excess of strong new wood with few fruit-buds. 
In neglected trees the spurs become weak and spindling 
from constant bearing, the flowers are borne singly in 
the buds when they should be in pairs or triplets, and the 
tree produces a large number of medium-sized fruits. 

The method of pruning will depend somewhat on the 
variety, but the general plan should be to keep the fruiting 
area of the tree as near the ground as possible; to shade 
the trunk to prevent sun-scald; and to encourage the 
growth of fruiting- wood throughout the entire top. 

The sweet and semi-sweet varieties are upright growers, 
and will need some heading-in to keep them within bounds. 
The rapid growth forced by pruning must be checked 
by careful watering. Unless this precaution is heeded, 
immature growth will result, and young trees may be 
killed outright in severe winters. Like the Anjou pear, 
some of the cherries produce an excess of weak fruit- 
buds that fail to set fruit. When this is found to be the 
case, it is a good sign that the tree is not being pruned as 
severely as it should be. Heavy pruning in the dormant 
season will often correct this fault. On the contrary, 
lack of bloom is generally due to excessive pruning or 
overwatering. Occasionally we find a variety in which 



Pruning Mature Trees 127 

this fault is characteristic, but it may usually be over- 
come by proper handling. 

Pruning the Peach 

There is probably no fruit-tree that gives the careful, 
observing pruner as much pleasure in the pruning as 
does the peach. Results soon indicate whether the 
pruning is right or wrong, for no fruit-tree will suffer 
more from neglect, and none responds more promptly 
to careful treatment. This prompt response, so plainly 
indicated, lends not a little inspiration to the proper train- 
ing and care of the peach orchard, and it is safe to say 
that, largely on this account, no fruit-tree is better pruned 
in our recognized peach sections. The practice is simple, 
and lack of courage is more often responsible for fail- 
ure than complicated principles. As already mentioned, 
the peach develops its fruit-buds in the axils of the leaves, 
and the fruit is borne on one-year-old wood, being a system 
of fruit-bearing that makes severe pruning a prerequisite 
to successful peach-growing. 

In pruning the peach, the object of the pruner should 
be to cut out enough wood to force good, strong new growth 
each year, to remove superfluous fruiting-wood, and to 
give the tree the desired shape. The mature peach tree 
should make an annual growth of at least 18 inches. 
With such new growth, much of the new wood will have 
to be removed entirely, while that remaining may be cut 
back to remove a part of the fruit-buds it carries. While 
some persons object to shortening-in the fruiting-wood, 
contending that it injures the fruit, the years of experience 
of our most careful growers recommend rather than con- 



128 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



demn such a system of thinning. While it does not take 
the place of hand thinning entirely, it saves a great deal 
of tedious hand work. 

It is hard to say just how much of the new wood is to 
be removed, or how much the remainder should be short- 




FiG. 41 . — Well- trained Peach Tree, Seven Years Old. Palisade, Colorado . 



ened-in. Probably four-fifths is removed entirely, the 
amount removed from what remains depending more 
on the location of the fruit- buds. With the older tree 
it may be half or even more, while in the young tree it 
may be necessary to leave the laterals unpruned on ac- 
count of the fruit-buds being nearer the tips. 

It is a common practice to do the heavier pruning 



Pruning Mature Trees 



129 



early in the spring, leaving the clipping-back and thinning 
until later, some waiting until all danger of frost is past. 
The pruner should constantly keep before him an ideal 
form for the peach tree; the well-grown young orchard at 
the mercy of a careless pruner may become ungainly and 




Fig. 42. — Peach Tree, Nine Years Old, well Trained, 
it conforms to a Right Angle. 



Note how nearly 



unproductive at the age of 10 years. Effort should be 
made to keep the fruit as near the ground as possible, 
as most of the fruit on a seven-year-old tree should be 
reached from the ground, and in no peach orchard should 
the picker need a ladder longer than six feet. (See Fig. 
41.) The depth of the fruiting area of the peach tree 



130 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

will seldom exceed six or seven feet, and an attempt to 
increase this depth will only result in a smothering out of 
the wood below. 

A better plan is to increase the productiveness of the 
tree by increasing its spread rather than its height. The 
ideal peach tree is one in which the top just comes within a 
right angle, or in other words, the spread should be almost 
double the height. Figure 42 illustrates the point very 
well. Notice how the head is well filled with frui ting- 
wood, and compare with Figure 43, a tree of the same age. 
With such a system of training, the first tree will be pro- 
ductive at the age of 15 years, while the latter, now 9 years 
old, must be rejuvenated by severe heading-in or be dis- 
carded as unprofitable. 

There is no more frequent fault of the old peach tree than 
that of the absence of fruiting-wood in its lower parts. 
Such wood can be maintained below only by vigorous 
pruning in the top. The center should also be well filled 
with fruiting-wood, as space may be unnecessarily wasted 
by training the top too open; the open center is not a 
necessity in the arid sections, where sunshine is abundant. 
The fruiting-wood in the center of the tree will hardly 
appear as strong as that nearer the tips, but, nevertheless, 
some of our best fruit comes from short and apparently 
weak spurs along the larger Hmbs. Some have tried 
summer pruning (thinning out the new wood in the center 
of the tree), hoping to strengthen the remaining wood, but 
it has not givon satisfactory results; too often it starts 
new growth that is immature and unfruitful. 

It is seldom that we read a paper on the subject of prun- 
ing the peach orchard without finding some reference to 



Pruning Mature Trees 



131 



the\ treatment of winter-injured trees. With the excep- 
tioii of young trees grown too late, or orchards in higher 




Fig. 43. — Peach Tree of Same Age as Fig. 42. Note the Long Limbs 
with Fruiting-wood only in the Top. 



altitudes or northern latitudes, such injury is not often 
experienced in the inter-mountain country. It is well 
for the grower to remember, however, that the winter- 



132 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



injured peach tree makes the best recovery when it aas 
received a moderately severe pruning. 




Fig. 44. — Peach Tree rejuvenated by Cutting-back or "Dehorning" 
the Large Limbs. 



A subject more worthy of mention is that of the rejuve- 
nation of the old peach orchard. The occasional loss of a 



Pruning Mature Trees 133 

peach crop by a late frost offers an excellent opportunity 
to grow a new top on the old peach tree. Figure 44 shows 
a peach tree 11 years old, two years after the grower had 
taken advantage of such an opportunity. The cutting- 
back should be performed as soon as possible after the loss 
of the crop can be ascertained. Severe pruning as late as 
the first of June forces rank new growth that develops very 
few fruit-buds. Rather large limbs may be cut if the bot- 
tom of the tree has some smaller growth, but cutting to 
bare stubs over two or three inches in diameter is hardly 
advisable. 

Pruning the Pear 

The mature pear tree does not require much pruning, 
nor does it allow lack of pruning to interfere seriously 
with its proper behavior so far as fruit-bearing is con- 
cerned. However, when the market demands that the 
fancy pear be from 234to 33^ inches in diameter, the owner 
of the old pear orchard is often reminded that the trees 
need pruning. In general, the manner of fruit-bearing of 
the pear is practically identical with that of the apple. 
The spurs are a little shorter and give the tree rather 
a more barren appearance, and, although some varieties 
develop axillary fruit-buds quite freely, the majority of 
the fruit-buds are terminal on these short spurs. The 
different varieties vary somewhat in their fruiting-habits, 
and a study of this character will indicate, to a certain 
extent, how much pruning each will require. 

Apparently the grower accepts the upright-growing 
habit of the pear as inevitable, with hardly so much as an 
effort to train it otherwise. With proper training there is 
no reason why the pear tree may not be grown with a mod- 



134 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



erately broad and low head. Pears that grow in the tops 
of high trees are too often scarred if not whipped off by wind 




Fig. 45. — Improper Pruning of Neglected Pear Tree. 



before they are mature, and, besides, it is too expensive to 
pick them. The shaping of the tree is determined mostly 



Pruning Mature Trees 135 

by the treatment that the young tree receives; but a little 
judicious heading-in of the old tree, taking care to cut 
to outside buds or branches, will improve an undesirable 
form. Too often the tree is allowed to grow at will until 
it is out of reach, and then in a fit of desperation the grower 
resorts to such a system of heading-in as is shown in Fig- 
ure 45. This system may be correct for the lawn hedge, 
but it is not well adapted to the pear, as is shown by Figure 
46, the same tree one year later. By the time the pruner 
gets through with this tree he will have decided that it is 
poor policy to head-in pear trees. Had the pear tree been 
properly headed-in, the result would have been different. 
It is only reasonable to suppose that leaving stubs of large 
limbs which bear numerous fruit-spurs will result in rank 
new growth from these spurs, especially in an off-year, 
when the spurs carry a large proportion of branch-buds. 
When it becomes necessary to head in the large pear trees, 
always cut to side limbs, and do not make the mistake of 
choosing an off-year to do this severe pruning; a heavy 
crop tends to check rampant growth encouraged by vigor- 
ous pruning. 

While some growers really believe that the pear tree will 
not stand pruning, we know of no variety to which mod- 
erate pruning is detrimental. On the other hand, there are 
varieties that require severe pruning. In spite of the fact 
that the Anjou pear is a favorite on the market, many a 
grower will not consider the planting of this variety. Yet 
a few of its more forbearing admirers have demonstrated 
that its one bad fault (tardy bearing) may be overcome by 
proper pruning. The young tree blooms freely and ap- 
parently sets very well, but before the fruits reach any 



136 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



size, the crop thins itself to almost nothing; even the old 
tree carries a very small proportion of its bloom to matur- 
ity. Heavy pruning in the dormant season will stop this 




Fig. 46. — Same as Fig. 45 after One Season's Growth. 



Pruning Mature Trees 137 

shedding and insure a good crop of fruit. The practice of 
the most successful growers is to cut the tree back each 
year and cut oiit some of the new wood that may have been 
forced by the last pruning. When once the tree begins 
to bear good crops, there is less trouble about its shed- 
ding. 

Some other varieties are more tardy about blooming, 
and heavy pruning in the dormant season would only 
augment this objectionable character. Such varieties 
often respond to June pruning ; and, if they do not, 
girdling in June will often prove beneficial. In girdhng, 
a strip of bark one quarter of an inch in width and ex- 
tending entirely around the trunk may be removed ; but 
perhaps a safer plan is to remove vertical strips of bark 
one and one-half inches in width, leaving other strips of 
about the same width intact. If the wood is uninjured, 
these wounds soon heal and do not permanently injure 
the tree. 

It is difficult to say just how much the pear should be 
pruned. The grower must decide for himself. The main 
object of pruning the mature tree should be to thin the 
fruit and thus improve the quality as well as to encour- 
age more regular bearing. However, the grower must not 
feel that pruning will take the place of thinning entirely; 
to secure best results the two must go together. 

The subject of pruning the pear could hardly be complete 
without some reference to the control of pear-blight. While 
it is true that when once the pear tree is inoculated with 
blight we must lay aside many of our ideas about pruning 
and cut to remove the affected parts, it is also true that, 
in a way, the tree may be trained to reduce to a mini- 



138 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

mum the loss from attacks of this disease. After the tree 
begins to bear, heavy pruning that may induce very heavy 
growth should be avoided if possible, as it is generally 
conceded that blight is more destructive to trees making 
rank growth. The majority of inoculations takes place 
through the blossoms, and one of the most serious types 
of injury is that occasioned by the entrance of blight into 
larger hmbs through short spurs. Through these short 
spurs the germs gain entrance to the larger parts, and often 
girdle them before discoloration indicates their presence. 
It is the nature of the pear tree to develop these short 
spurs in abundance, and it will be necessary to remove 
them from the base of the larger limbs. Strong new 
wood may be allowed to take their places, and this may 
later be developed into fruiting-branches. Then, should 
blight enter these blossoms, they are far enough removed 
from the main limbs that the disease may be detected 
and intercepted before it reaches the most vital parts. 

Pruning the Quince 

While the importance of the quince industry in the 
West might not seem to warrant the insertion of this para- 
graph, the almost criminal neglect from which the quince 
tree suffers as regards pruning would move one to write 
a book. Among the fruit-trees herein considered, the 
quince has a fruit-bearing habit pecuhar to itself. With 
the advance of spring the dormant buds on the one-year- 
old wood push out leafy shoots from three to four inches 
in length, and these are terminated by a single flower. 
While both axillary and terminal buds produce these 
flower-bearing shoots, the stronger flowers come from the 



Pruning Mature Trees 139 

axillary buds on the last half of the annual growth; ter- 
minal buds more frequently give rise to branches, or at 
most weak flower-bearing shoots. Considering its fruit- 
ing-habit, then, the quince should receive about the same 
pruning as the peach. While with some varieties the 
plant very readily assumes a tree form, others are, at 
their best, only a bush. A course of severe pruning for 
the young tree, however, will aid the grower in securing a 
desirably shaped tree. 

When the tree has reached a bearing age, it should be 
pruned annually by thinning out the new wood and cHp- 
ping-back that remaining to about two-thirds of its length. 
With proper pruning, the quince should produce annual 
growths from 12 to 24 inches in length. Too rank growth 
is not desirable on account of the stronger fruit-buds being 
nearer the tips, and in cutting-back such rank growth the 
pruning must not be too severe. The plant should be 
made to assume as near a tree form as possible, and then 
in addition it should be pruned with the idea of growing 
a goodly supply of new wood each season. 

Pruning the Plum 

Under this head is grouped a large number of species 
and varieties of fruit differing widely in their habits of 
growth and of fruit-bearing. Were it not for the fact 
that common practice seems to discourage the pruning of 
many varieties to any considerable extent, this would be 
a difficult subject to handle; no well-defined system of 
pruning would suit all. In their habits of fruit-bearing 
the majority of the plums resemble the apricot very much. 
Still, many of them, like the cherry, show more of an 



140 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

inclination to bear only branch-buds on the thriftier new 
wood. Like the apricot, the plums, with possibly a few 
exceptions, develop no true terminal buds. Except on 
wxak spurs, the last axillary bud is generally a branch-bud 
that continues the grow^fch of the branch or spur the fol- 
lowing season. The fruit-buds are developed in the axils 
of the leaves on both spurs and on the ranker-growing new 
wood, the different varieties showing considerable varia- 
tion in this respect. 

The body of the plum tree is subject to injury from sun- 
scald, and it goes without saying that the tree should be 
headed low. The young trees of most varieties will need 
cutting-back, and the tops thinned out, to develop them 
into desirably shaped trees. Some varieties wall require 
pruning to spread them, and others, of a more straggling 
habit, wall need cutting-back to inside buds or branches 
to make them grow more upright. 

As mentioned before, the bearing plum tree, according 
to local custom, receives at most only moderate pruning. 
As a rule, the Domestica plums, locally represented by 
the various prunes, are pruned very Httle after they reach 
the bearing age. There are certain varieties that tend to 
overbear, however, and a certain amount of thinning-out 
of the fruiting-wood would greatly facilitate hand thin- 
ning, promote more regular bearing, and improve the 
quality of the fruit. 

The pruning of the native plums is left largely to nature, 
although there is no reason why moderate pruning might 
not improve the quality of the fruit and lessen the diffi- 
culty of picking. 

There is Httle doubt but that such varieties as the Bur- 



Pruning Mature Trees 141 

bank, Abundance, Satsuma, Red June, and others of the 
Japanese group, respond satisfactorily to rather severe 
pruning. In fact, they are more Hke the apricot in their 
fruiting-habit, and thrive under the same system of prun- 
ing. When neglected, they tend to overbear in alternate 
years. They should receive an annual heading-in and 
thinning-out to force strong new growth which makes very 
desirable fruiting- wood. While pruning as a means of 
thinning the fruit is not without merit in the case of the 
plums, it does not seem to give results comparable with 
those secured in the peach. The grower of fancy plums 
must supplement moderate pruning with hand-thinning. 

Thinning the Fruit 

In fancy-fruit growing, the necessity for thinning will 
become more apparent as competition becomes more keen. 
While the wisdom of thinning peaches is no longer doubted, 
growers are not so wilhng to take up systematic work in 
thinning apples and pears. But the time is coming when 
the fruit-grower will be forced to conclude that it no longer 
pays to grow poor fruit. Even now, the years that the 
grower makes a profit in shipping choice fruit are the 
exception rather than the rule. There are but few lo- 
cahties in which choice fruit cannot be grown, and wher- 
ever shipped, such fruit must generally compete with 
the home-grown product. On the other hand, localities 
in which strictly fancy fruit can be grown are limited, and 
competition in this class is more impartial. The com- 
petition is between locahties which are probably equally 
distant from the market, and the one producing the best 
fruit is the successful competitor. 



142 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

To a certain extentj pruning is a method of thinning, but 
it will not take the place of hand-thinning entirely. The 
production of a fancier grade of fruit is not the only benefit 
derived from thinning: it encourages more regular bear- 
ing; lessens the loss from the breaking of limbs; and gives 
the grower an opportunity to destroy insect-infested fruit, 
and thus check the spread of insects early in the season. 
The tree that has been properly thinned should produce 
a good crop of fruit buds each year, and if it has been 
both properly trained and thinned it will never need a 
prop. 

While many persons have observed that apple and pear 
trees are inchned to bear alternate years, probably few 
understand the cause. Fruit-spurs with terminal fruit- 
buds, as those of apple and the pear, generally bear in 
alternate years only, and if the spurs are all full of fruit 
one year, the next must be an ^'off-year." Not only do 
the spurs fail to bear annually, but if the tree is overloaded, 
spurs that produce bloom, even though they fail to set 
fruit, may not be sufficiently nourished to produce fruit- 
buds for the following season. If the tree bears only a 
moderate crop of fruit, spurs that produce bloom but no 
fruit often develop fruit-buds the same season. If the 
tree is bearing a light load, spurs may mature fruit and 
develop fruit-buds the same season. Varieties differ, and 
while some are regular bearers under almost any treat- 
ment, others show a stubborn inclination to bear only 
alternate years. After the old tree has fallen into the 
habit of bearing alternate years, it is no doubt more diffi- 
cult to get it back to a regular bearing habit. Off-years 
are not uncommon with some of the fruit trees bearing 



Pruning Mature Trees 143 

from axillary fruit-buds, but it is not so pronounced as 
with the apple and pear. 

Thinning the Apple. — Fixed rules to be followed in 
thinning are hard to give. Much depends on the general 
thrift of the tree, and, as in pruning, the grower must 
learn much by experience. If we thin to encourage an- 
nual bearing, it will be seen that all the fruit must be re- 
moved from some of the spurs, and, at the same time, the 
number of fruits remaining must be reduced to such an 
extent that the tree is not overburdened. Some persons 
thin to leave the apples at given distances apart, but a rule 
fixing a certain space between the fruits will not hold good 
in all cases. If we were always sure the tree had been 
properly pruned, we might be able to give a satisfactory 
rule to be followed, leaving the fruits at so many inches 
apart. 

A plan the writers have tried and found to be very 
satisfactory is so to thin as to leave a certain number of 
boxes of fruit on the tree. Suppose you decide that the 
tree should produce ten boxes of fancy fruit. A fairly 
uniform grade of apples ranging from 2^ to 3 inches 
in diameter will pack about 150 to the box, and by 
thinning two or three trees and leaving the 1500 apples, 
actually counting them or estimating them as closely 
as possible, one learns what a tree properly thinned 
should look like. With these trees as a model, it is sur- 
prising how close one can come to leaving just the right 
number. We think it is possible, by careful work, to come 
within a box of the ideal. But knowing how much the 
tree should produce is where the experience counts. 

Not many varieties of apple will require much thinning 



144 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

before they are 10 years old, and at this age the average 
tree should produce about eight boxes of fancy fruit; 
some will produce more and some less. After the tenth 
year a gain of a box per year would be a conservative esti- 
mate. Of course the yield will vary under different con- 
ditions; and, while this is not a rule that may be implicitly 
followed, it is surely more accurate than thinning to a 
certain distance. 

The thinner first removes defective or wormy specimens, 
and he should be supplied with a bag to carry the wormy 
fruits from the orchard to be destroyed; then those 
from the tips of the hmbs may as well be removed, for they 
seldom make fancy fruit; and, if possible to do it and 
leave the required amount, thin to one fruit on the spur. 
June and early July is the proper season for thinning apples 
and pears. 

Experiments have shown that it pays to thin apples. 
The fruit is improved in both size and color, the tree bears 
more regularly, and those that might break under heavy 
loads are saved. Some persons say it is expensive to thin; 
but, if one stops to calculate, he will find that it really 
costs no more to pick fruit in June than it does in October. 
A man can thin from ten to fifteen twelve-year-old trees 
per day, and the actual cost of thinning should not exceed 
two cents per box. It is true that the results the first 
season are often disappointing, for an unthinned tree may 
produce sixteen boxes of fruit that will grade 50 per cent 
fancy, while the thinned tree of the same age produces 
only ten boxes that will grade 95 per cent fancy. This 
hardly seems profitable; but the next year will tell, and 
it is safe to say that two years running the thinned tree 



Pruning Mature Trees 145 

will produce as much fancy fruit as the unthinned tree 
will produce of both fancy and choice. 

Thinning Pears. — Methods of thinning pears differ 
little from those of thinning apples ; the principles are the 
same. As a rule, the pear tree will produce about as many 
boxes of fruit as will the apple tree of the same age. The 
fruit is generally picked by installments, and it is possible 
to mature a large crop of fancy fruit; fruit that is small 
may be left until it reaches the desired size. 

Pears running from 135 to 150 to the box are consid- 
ered to be ideal size, and fruit for such a pack must meas- 
ure from 2\ to 2f inches in diameter. Pears larger than 
three inches are really not as desirable for the fancy fruit 
trade as those of smaller size. The fruit stands like a pear 
that can be sold two for five cents at a profit, and there is no 
profit to be made in selhng the larger ones for that price, 
and they are not large enough to sell for five cents each. 

Thinning Peaches. — In growing peaches, much of the 
thinning is done with the shears in the pruning season, 
but additional hand thinning is absolutely necessary. A 
good grade of peaches should run less than 90 to the box, 
and we may say it seldom pays to ship smaller fruit. A 
size that will pack less than 80 to the box is desirable. 
The young peach orchard that has been properly pruned 
will do well to average a box of fruit to the tree the fourth 
season in the orchard, and the yield should increase at the 
rate of about two boxes per tree per year. Unless the 
trees have been exceptionally well pruned and cared for, 
they will rarely more than hold their own after the eleventh 
or twelfth year. 

The one object of thinning, as practiced with the stone- 



146 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

fruits, is to produce better fruit. The thinning should be 
performed before the foliage gets too heavy and the pits 
begin to harden. By carefully thinning a few trees and 
estimating the number of fruits remaining, one can soon 
form an ideal to work by. The pruning shears may be 
used as a help in thinning, and such fruiting-wood as is 
not necessarily needed may be removed entirely. 



CHAPTER IX 

TOP-WORKING FRUIT TREES 

It is becoming more and more apparent of late years that 
certain localities and soils are peculiarly adapted to grow- 
ing particular kinds and even varieties of fruit." Com- 
mercial fruit-growing localities are making their reputation 
by being able to grow a few varieties well. So each new 
fruit country must go through an experimental stage, 
when a host of varieties is being tested to determine those 
best adapted to its peculiar conditions. Then in the de- 
velopment of each new fruit country there comes a time 
when the grower will be obliged to solve the problem as to 
what to do with the undesirable varieties. Shall he de- 
stroy the trees or graft them over to better varieties ? 

Modes of grafting over old trees have long been prac- 
ticed, and experience has proved that, if properly done, 
top-working brings quicker returns than the replanting of 
young trees. It is not uncommon to see a fairly good crop 
on the three-year-old top of a top-worked tree. Trees 
properly worked over give tops as desirable and some- 
times more desirable than trees of the same variety grown 
from first-class nursery stock. 

Top-working as a means of establishing a weak-growing 
variety on a stronger root system than its own is now 
coming into favor. The Rome (Beauty), when on its own 
roots, is an indifferent grower on the best soil; but when 

147 



148 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

worked on some strong-growing stump, it makes a very 
satisfactory tree. Some varieties of apple, susceptible 
to attacks of root rots, could no doubt be successfully 
grown on roots of varieties that are apparently resistant. 
The Northern Spy seems to be a striking example of an 
apple-tree root free from the attacks of woolly aphis, and 
it is sometimes planted and later worked over to other 
varieties. 

Broken and diseased limbs may be saved by grafting, 
and progressive fruit-growers, who desire to test new 
varieties, can best do it by grafting a few cions into bear- 
ing trees. 

Some years ago the fruit-grower looked on the practice 
of grafting as a mysterious art and on the man who went 
about doing the work as a sort of wizard. As a matter 
of fact, it is so simple that any careful orchardist can and 
should do it himself. 

All of our common fruit trees can be easily grafted or 
budded. The apple and pear rnay be intergrafted upon 
each other, and the same may be said of the peach, plum, 
apricot, and almond. But in practice, we do not under- 
take such wholesale mixing. It may be said that the 
apple and pear never make good unions; while such com- 
binations may unite, the union may not be perfect enough 
to make a good top. We would not expect the top- work- 
ing of apple to pear, or vice versa, to be a success. The 
writers have seen peach grafts start very vigorously upon 
apricot, and plums upon peach trees. We have observed 
plum trees top-worked to peach with perfect unions and 
the ten-year old tops bearing excellent crops of fruit. In 
this case the combination seemed to result in a dwarfing 



Top-working Fruit Trees 



149 



of the peach top, although the growth is by no means 
stunted. So, in practice, we adhere largely to the inter- 
grafting of different varieties of the same kind of fruit. 

To understand the principles underlying graft age, the 
orchardist should know how the stems of our fruit trees 
grow. He should understand that 
growth in diameter takes place only 
in a very small region between the 
bark and sapwood. This part of 
the stem is called the cambium. In 
this thin layer of tissue the cells are 
still active and capable of division, 
while the activity of each succeeding 
layer, on either side, grows less and 
less. 

When the limb is split to insert a 
cion, the cleft does not grow together 
along its entire length, as some may 
think. The cells in the cambium 
may produce a growth that may, to 
a certain extent, fill up the cleft and 
cover over the stub, but the tissues of 
the stock and cion make a true union 
only where the cells of the cambiums 
of the two come in contact. Figure 47 is a pen drawing 
of a section through a stub, grafted two years before. 
The stub was kerf-grafted, and shows that no union has 
taken place between the woody tissues of the stock and 
cion. The important point in grafting is to see that the 
cambium layers of the stock and cion are matched at 
some point. 




Fig. 47. — Longitudinal 
Section through a 
Graft, showing that 
Union takes Place 
only around Outer 
Edge. 



150 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

When growth is most active, we say that the bark 
"peels." Budding is done during this period because 
separation of bark and wood is possible; it not only sim- 
plifies the work of inserting the bud, but, as growth is more 
active, the tissues of the bud and the stock are more likely 
to unite. 

TOP-WORKING OLD TREES 

In the working over of old trees, it is well to bear in mind 
that trees which show a poor growth in the orchard are 
seldom worth the time it takes to graft them. This is very 
often true of some varieties of apple. For example, we 
have never yet seen a Yellow Transparent stock grow a 
top worth the space it occupied. The same is almost in- 
variably true of tops on Wagener, Duchess, Missouri (Pip- 
pin), Wealthy, and Hyslop crab. In fact, it seldom pays 
to top-w"ork any crab. Figures 48, 49, and 50 are from a 
series of photographs of a Transcendent crab-apple, the 
first showing Winesap grafts one year old and some just 
set; the second figure, the same tree one year later (quite 
a promising tree); and the third figure the result at the 
end of the third season, almost the entire top being blown 
off by a heavy wind. The grafts were Winesap and were 
set in a kerf, not a cleft. 

As a rule, the weaker-growing varieties are very unsatis- 
factory stocks upon which to work other kinds. Then the 
wisdom of top-working stone-fruits would almost seem 
questionable. While good tops may be grown on either 
peach, plum, apricot, or almond, it is doubtful whether 
these tops will bear much quicker returns than young 
trees set in the place of the old ones. Still, we would 



Top-working Fruit Trees 



151 



not care to discourage a practice most successfully fol- 
lowed by some growers, but will say that only strong- 
growing young trees under the most favorable conditions 
are worthy of such an attempt at renewal. 




Fig. 48. — Transcendent Crab Grafted to Winesap. 



Various modes of graftage may be employed in chang- 
ing over the top of the old trees. Some method of cion- 
grafting is generally used, although it is not uncommon, in 



152 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



stone-fruits especially, to bud into new growths. Of the 
methods of cion-grafting two are commonly used in the 
West: cleft-grafting and kerf-grafting. Those who have 




-piG. 49. — The Same as 48, One Year later. 



Top-working Fruit Trees 



153 







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s 
1 




1^ 


/ 


wkm' Y* wkl \ jj|fcrfj!ry»^i^ , 




'^ \ 




Br > \ ^H^ i/^lpraffliWr* •f"') 1 




-'-1 




1 jr-r^^^ffi^^w^^^^)! - 




.■4 


\ 


1 1 ' ."^'^'^B^^^^ES; ^^fe' 


ft' 




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p^^^^B^^^^M 


mh.. 




^M 


Ifc .^^nJ^MBII^IIIffiiH^^ 


0m 


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Fig. 50. — The Same as 48 Two Years later. Grafts mostly Blown out. 

practiced grafting in the East as well as in the West 
contend that the wood of western fruit trees is much more 



154 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

brittle, and that on account of excessive splitting, cleft- 
grafting is more difficult. This has led to the introduction 
of a new method locally known as kerf -grafting. 

Cleft-grafting. — The operation of cleft-grafting is very 
simple. The hmb to be grafted is sawed off squarelj^, 
leaving a smooth, solid stump. The stub is spHt down 
about two inches with a grafting-chisel or knife. The 
chisel is removed and the cleft is wedged open with the 
wedge on the back of the knife, or a wedge provided for the 
purpose. The cion should be cut to contain three buds 
and should be of strong, well-matured wood of the previous 
season's growth. The lower end is then trimmed to a 
wedge, leaving the first bud a little below the top of the 
wedge, and cutting the edge of the wedge opposite the bud 
a little thinner than the other. The cion is then set firmly 
into place with the lower bud to the outside and a little 
below the top of the cleft, being sure to bring the inner bark 
on the outer edge of the wedge in contact with thd inner bark 
on the stub. This is the important step in grafting, as it is 
between these parts that the union takes place. Some- 
times the inexperienced grafter makes the mistake of set- 
ting the cion flush with the outer edge of the stock. On 
large stubs with thick bark it would almost be impossible 
to set a cion more illy matched than in this way. Some 
persons advocate setting the cion on a slant, the point of 
the wedge toward the center of the stub. This insures a 
contact of the cambium layers where they cross and is a 
good suggestion, since a point of contact is sufficient for 
a good union. 

With a cion properly set in each edge of the cleft — 
provided the stub is large enough — the wedge is re- 



Top-working Fruit Trees 155 

moved. This allows the cleft to tighten on the cions, the 
greater thickness of the outer edge of" the wedge-shaped 
portion of the cions insuring greater pressure at this point. 
With the removal of the wedge, the cleft should hold the 
cions firmly in place. Wax should now be applied to all 
cut surfaces, even to the tips of the cions. Special pains 
should be taken to see that the stub is well covered be- 
tween the cions as well as the cleft as far as it extends down 
on the sides of the stub. This prevents drying out; and 
it is important that it be thoroughly done. 

Kerf -grafting. — This system of grafting differs little from 
inlaying. The stub is prepared as for cleft-grafting, but, 
instead of splitting, saw cuts are made on opposite edges 
of the stub and trimmed to thin, V-shaped grooves with a 
saddler's knife. The cion is then trimmed to fit, driven 
firmly into place, and waxed as in cleft-grafting. With 
a little practice, the cions may be set as firmly as in cleft- 
grafting. It is contended that this method has the advan- 
tage in speed and that the cions are not as easily blown out 
in early summer. Cions are lost by both methods, and if 
properly performed, one is probably as good as the other. 
The kerf has the advantage that more cions may be set in 
large stubs and thus hasten the process of healing. The 
same care must be used in setting the cion to insure a 
union. The latter system seems to be especially adapted 
to working with stone-fruits, in which splitting is even 
more noticeable than in the apple and pear. 

Sharp tools that give a smooth-cut surface are essential 
in all grafting work. 

Bark-grafting. — Some orchardmen advocate a method 
known as bark-grafting. In this case, the stub is cut as 



156 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

before, the cion is prepared with a long slope on one side 
and slipped between the bark and sapwood. It is gen- 
erally necessary to slit the bark at the point of insertion, 
and very often the bark is removed from the base of the 
cion up to the top of the sloping cut. The stub is bound 
with waxed string, or other material, to hold the cions 
firmly, and it is then waxed, as is the cleft-grafted stub. 
The method really has no advantages over the others, 
unless when compared with cleft-grafting in large stubs. 

Terminal-grafting. — Another style sometimes employed 
is that known as terminal-grafting. This work is generally 
performed in the latter part of June or as soon as new 
growth has matured enough to allow a terminal bud to be 
secured. On old trees, such wood may be found in June. 
A twig that has completed its growth may be picked out 
by the presence of a well-formed bud at the tip and full 
grown, or practically full grown, terminal leaves. The 
cions are cut three or four inches long and the leaves 
practically all trimmed off. 

There are different ways of inserting the cion. The most 
common method is to cut a vertical slit in the bark of the 
stock, trim the lower end of the cion with a long sloping 
cut on one side, and then slip it under the bark at an angle 
about 45° with the slit. The cut surface of the cion should 
rest upon the wood of the stock. It is not necessary to 
wrap or even wax the wound. 

The cions start into growth the same season, but the top 

'of the stock is left until the following spring. The method 

seems to work well. It may prove to be a practical way 

of supplying lower limbs on young trees headed too high. 

When one neglects to remove the top when such grafting 



Top-working Fruit Trees 157 

is performed in the lower part of old trees, these cions 
readily form fruiting-wood, generally bearing the third 
season. It is suggested that it may be the proper course to 
take as a means of securing specimens of new varieties in 
the shortest length of time. 

Choosing the stubs. — There is much to be gained by 
the proper selection of stubs into which cions are to be set. 
A too common practice is to remove the whole top the first 
year and graft all the stubs. It is surprising that some 
good results come from such a practice. More often, how- 
ever, this proves too much for the tree and it fails even 
after the grafts have made a good start. It may linger 
two or three years and then die from no other cause than 
the severe cutting-back, although the growers are prone to 
attribute it to some other affliction. The cutting away 
of the greater part of the top may be advisable in top- 
working stone-fruits. The pear will withstand much more 
abuse in this respect than the apple. 

A far better plan in all cases is to cut away only enough 
limbs to carry cions for a good top. This will generally be 
about half of the tree, as in most cases six stubs will pro- 
vide for a good top. The working of more stubs results in 
a too dense top or necessitates their removal later. The 
remaining limbs maybe shortened, but the foliage is needed 
to protect the stubs and trunk from sun-scald as well as 
to supply nourishment. If the stubs are well chosen, the 
remaining limbs will do much to protect the young grafts 
from wind and especially from being brushed out by pass- 
ing teams and orchard machinery. It is well to choose 
inside limbs for grafting as they are best protected, but 
care must be taken not to contract the head of the tree too 



158 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

much. It should be borne in mind that top-worked trees 
tend to grow upright; but it is a difficulty that may be 
largely overcome by judicious pruning. 

After the cions have made one year's gro^^i^h, much of 
the remaining top may be removed, but it should seldom 
all be removed from old trees before the second year. 
If some stubs have met with accidents or have failed to 
start the cions, or if the shape of the tree or a scarcity 
of scaffold limbs has prevented a full top being placed 
the first spring, it may be completed the second. 

While we sometimes see grafts doing well in stubs six 
inches in diameter, it is very doubtful whether such 
grafts will make a strong union or a long-lived tree. The 
wisdom of working limbs over three inches in diameter 
is to be doubted. In the choosing of stubs, the grafter 
should remember that large wounds, properly made, heal 
more readily than large stubs. Choose the smaller limbs 
for grafting even though the later removal of the top may 
necessitate the cutting of larger limbs lower down. It 
is better to raise the head of the tree than to work large 
stubs. Figure 51, showing a two-year-old top on a pear 
tree, illustrates this point; notice the large wounds below 
the grafted stubs. 

Season for Grafting. — The ideal time for grafting is 
just as the buds are beginning to swell. While cions may 
be set earlier than this, there is danger of their drying out 
before a union is established. Should one care to pro- 
long the season, it is better to run late than to begin 
early. The opening of the season will vary from the first 
of March to the first of April or even later in some parts 
of the West, and may be extended until the first leaves 



Top-working Fruit Trees 



159 



are practically full grown. Good results cannot be ex- 
pected from cions set later than this. Some persons 




Fig. 51. — Showing Pear Tree Grafted in Small Limbs. The Large 
Lower Limbs were Removed later. 



go through the orchard in winter and remove the tops 
of the stubs that are to be grafted, cutting them at least 



160 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

a foot above where the cions are to be placed. This 
saves some time, and by hauhng the brush out before 
the grafts are set, it saves some of them from being knocked 
out by careless men in removing it later. When ready 
to graft, the stub is recut from a foot to eight inches 
lower. 

Protecting the Body. — Since the removal of any con- 
siderable part of the top often exposes the body of the 
tree to the direct rays of the sun, it is well in the arid 
regions to whitewash the trunk and main branches. The 
whitewash reflects the rays of the sun, and by such an 
application many cases of sun-scald may be avoided. 
(See Formula, p. 390.) The wash can best be apphed 
with a spray pump. A good coating can only be secured 
with two applications, the second to follow as soon as the 
first is dry. 

Cion Wood. — In this connection, it is well to say a 
word about the selection of cion wood for grafting. The 
man who is interested in his bearing orchard has early 
learned that the individual trees in the plantation show 
a great variation, especially in productiveness, and very 
often in the size, color, and quality of the fruit. Some 
of this variation may be accounted for in various ways, 
but, after all, we are coming to believe that, environ- 
mental conditions being equal, no two trees are constitu- 
tionally alike in bearing habits. It is a natural variation. 
There are trees that never bear well, and cions from such 
trees will, no doubt, produce trees very much like them. 
Mark your favorite trees and select cion wood from them. 

The cion wood should be one year old, strong and well 
matured, but not overgrown. The terminal shoots from 



Top-working Fruit Trees 



161 



trees that have made a growth of 12 
to 18 inches make excellent cions. The 
question is often asked as to the use of 
watersprouts. The term '' watersprout " 
may mean different things to different 
persons. By watersprouts we generally 
mean rank growth from adventitious 
buds; and such growths with immature 
tips, weak buds far apart, and pithy 
centers make very poor cion wood. 
Otherwise, any new wood with well- 
developed buds comparatively close to- 
gether may be used for cions. The 
statement sometimes made that water- 
sprauts never produce fruit is errone- 
ous. Figure 52 shows the difference 
between good and poor cion wood. 

Cion wood should be gathered in the 
fall, preferably as soon as the leaves 
have fallen, and stored until spring. 
The object is not to avoid winter in- 
jury, as some think, but to keep the 
cions in a dormant condition. Few 
realize that buds complete the resting 
period early in the winter and under 
favorable conditions may begin to swell 
before the first of January. While the 
unobserving man may say that there 
is no difference in the buds of the Fig. 52 
young growth in early December and 
in February, there may be a marked 



Good and 
Poor Cion Wood. 
Good on the Right. 



162 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

difference in some climates. The open winters in the 
Middle West are especially likely to start early growth. 
The object of keeping the cions dormant is to allow time 
for a partial union before the buds are started into growth 
by the warm days of the grafting season. Cions with 
buds well swollen often throw leaf surface before a 
sufficiently strong union has been made. The result is 
the exhaustion of the stored-up food supply and moisture 
of the cion to a point that may cause its death. 

The cions may be stored in sand in a cool corner of 
the cellar or buried out-of-doors. The main object is 
to keep them cool and moist and away from fluctuating 
temperatures. An excellent plan is to bury them on 
the north side of a building or in some spot that is shaded 
most of the day. They need not be buried deep, from 
twelve to eighteen inches being sufficient in a well-shaded 
spot. 

Growing the Top. — It would hardly seem wise to leave 
the subject of top-working old trees without some com- 
ment on future treatment of the grafts. The setting of 
the cions is only the first step in working over the tree. 

Should we stop here, a most miserable failure or, at 
least a poor top, might be the result. Many a good 
^' catch" is ruined by neglecting the pruning the first two 
seasons. 

In the first season the grafts should make a very rank 
growth and they will require some pinching-back to save 
them from becoming top-heavy and consequently easily 
blown out. The common practice is to head-in the rapidly 
growing shoots when they have attained a length of 
eighteen inches to two feet. This forces branches from 



Top-working Fruit Trees 163 

below; and if growth becomes too heavy, these secondary 
branches may need cutting back before the season is over. 
This pruning insures stockiness of the new growth and 
throws much of the energies of the top into a good union. 

The growth of suckers or watersprouts from the stock 
should not be allowed to any great extent. Should the 
stubs be exposed to the direct rays of the sun it is well 
to leave some of this growth, pinching it back to cause 
it to form a dense shade. Unless needed for protection, 
it is well to rub the sprouts off as fast as they appear. 

The following spring the system of pruning should 
resemble very much that of pruning young trees. The 
grafts should usually be cut back to not over eighteen 
inches in length. They may be cut even shorter if the 
growth has not been satisfactory. If all three buds have 
started from a cion, it is well to remove all but one to 
avoid crowding. As a rule, the growth from the lowest 
bud will be the strongest and should be retained. Should 
the formation of the top allow it, a second growth may 
be left. If the grafts have been set close in near the head 
of the tree, they will require some pruning for the purpose 
of spreading the top. The general tendency is for the 
top-worked tree to grow too compact. Cut the grafts 
back to one of the strong outside branches started by the 
first pinching-back and it will give them a start in the right 
direction. 

When two cions start in the same stub and the stub 
is less than three inches in diameter, one should be re- 
moved. Keep the stronger, or if there should be little 
difference, the one best situated to help make a good 
top. Cut the other off close, even to removing a small 



164 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



corner of the stub on that side, as the wound will heal 
better. Should the stub be over three inches in diameter, 
there is some reason for leaving the extra graft another 
year. It will help to callous over the stub, and it may 




Fig. 53. — a Well-formed Grafted Tree. 



be removed the following spring, leaving a comparatively 
small wound. If left longer, or until the two grow to- 
gether, the result is a bad crotch and sometimes a pressure 
that may actually split the stub. 



Top-working Fruit Trees 165 

Subsequent pruning will consist in such cutting-back 
as will help form a stocky and well-shaped top. They 
will demand the same attention as young trees. Spread 
the top by pruning to outside buds or branches and do 
not pay too much attention to the small wood. Some of 
the small branches may require cutting-out or clipping- 
back, but remember that in this we have the start for 
early fruiting-wood. In Figure 53 is shown a well- 
formed top-grafted tree. Small limbs were chosen for 
grafting and enough of the original top was left to afford 
protection and to provide nourishment. Fewer grafts 
would probably have answered the purpose just as well. 

TOP-WORKING YOUNG TREES 

There is a growing conviction among fruit-growers that 
better results may come from planting vigorous young 
trees of some strong-growing kind to be later worked over 
to the desired variety. In the opening remarks on this 
subject, mention was made of the desirability of working 
weak-growing kinds on stronger root-systems, as well as 
top-working, as a means of lessening loss from attacks of 
root troubles and woolly aphis. The embarrassment of 
growing the orchard to a bearing age only to find some 
of the trees not true to name may be avoided by this plan 
of starting the young orchard. The fruit-grower has ob- 
served also that few trees of the same variety are alike in 
bearing habit and character of fruit, as we have said. No 
doubt, many growers have some particular tree in their 
bearing orchard that is better and nearer their ideal than 
all others. By choosing grafting wood from this tree, 



166 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

a young orchard may be grown as near like it as is 
possible. 

In top-working j'^oung trees, it is a common practice 
to set the trees where they are to grow, and after the 
scaffold limbs are well formed, to graft or bud into these 
the future top. Some eastern men have advocated 
purchasing two-year-old trees in the fall (trees in which 
the head is already formed) to be grafted-over indoors 
in December. In the West, and especially on a large 
scale, this system would hardly seem to be practicable. 
The method in this case is whip-grafting. 

Grafting Young Trees. — In grafting young trees in 
the field, it is probably well to perform the operation as 
early in the life of a tree as possible. As soon as a good 
strong framework can be secured, the tree is ready for 
top-working. The small size of the stubs makes cleft- 
grafting difficult and kerf-grafting almost out of the 
question. Some growers, however, report good success 
in cleft-grafting young trees after two years' growth 
from a yearling w^hip. In this case, the stubs must be 
bound with waxed cloth or other material to hold the cion 
firmly, and then waxed as in cleft-grafting larger stubs. 

Another mode, known as whip-grafting, is well adapted 
to working these small stubs of young trees. The process 
is well illustrated in Figure 54. With this style of graft- 
ing, it may be possible to set the cions after one year's 
growth in the field, but it is doubtful whether much time 
will be gained by such practice. The cion should be as 
near the size of the stub as possible, if anything a little 
smaller. The cambium of the stock and cion is matched 
only on one side, paying no attention to the other. The 



Top-working Fruit Trees 



167 



joint should be well wrapped with waxed cloth, and, to be 
doubly sure that all air is excluded, it may be painted over 
with warm wax. 

In grafting young trees, it is a common practice to 
remove all of the top, placing cions in those arms that 
one wishes to keep. It is always well to 
work a few extra stubs, as accidents may 
befall some of the cions. 

The season for top-grafting the young 
trees is the same as for old trees. While 
top-working the old trees tends to hasten 
the bearing of the cions, it is doubtful 
whether top-working young trees in- 
duces earlier fruitfulness. 

Budding the Young Trees. — Budding 
is, no doubt, the simpler method of put- 
ting a new top on young trees. While 
the process of budding is a httle more 
delicate than that of grafting, with a 
little practice the average man can get 
very satisfactory results. Buds should 
be placed as soon as the top is well 
formed, setting one or two in each scaf- Fig. 54.— The Oper- 
fold limb that is to be retained. The 
buds are generally set from six to twelve 
inches from the main stem, depending on the formation of 
the head. Trees two years old when set may generally 
be budded the following fall, and should yearling whips 
make a strong growth, the arms may be large enough to 
receive buds in September. Any stem as large as a lead 
pencil may be budded easily. Arms in which buds fail to 




ation of Whip- 
grafting. 



168 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

start may be grafted the following spring or budded in 
June. Should arms fail to appear in the proper place, 
it is possible to supply them by setting buds directly 
into the body of the young tree. 

When the buds begin to push into new growth, they 
will require about the same care as young grafts. They 
will need some pinching-back to strengthen the stem 
and to overcome the tendency to become top-heavy. 
With the possible exception of young trees budded in 
late June, all growth from the original stock should be 
removed as it appears. 

Buds may be set in June, or in August and September. 
For June-budding the bud-sticks are cut as soon as good 
firm new wood can be secured. New wood with buds 
mature enough for budding may generally be cut from 
old trees the latter part of June. As soon as the buds 
unite with the stock, the bandage is cut and the part of 
the stock above the bud is removed. In June-budding 
it is well to leave some of the new growth that springs 
from the arms below the bud. This takes the surplus 
sap and helps nourish the roots until the buds are well 
started. Wood from buds set in June may not mature 
well in our climate, and so is susceptible to winter injury 
during severe winters. By careful watering, such growth 
may mature very well. 

When practicable, fall budding should be given the 
preference. In the case of peach trees, June-budding 
is preferred where, in early spring, attacks of twig borers 
often destroy buds set the previous fall. In the apple 
and pear it is more convenient to bud in the fall. Arms 
that are large enough to bud in early spring were large 



Top-working Fruit Trees 169 

enough the previous September, so that one really gains 
rather than loses time by budding in the fall. Most 
budding is done in the fall. 

In fall budding, the buds are taken, from the current 
year's growth. Buds may be inserted in wood of one, 
two, or three years' growth. The stiffness of the bark 
of the older wood makes budding difficult. The heavy 
bark not only makes the insertion of the bud difficult, 
but in drying out it curls away from the bud and exposes 
it to the air. The position for the bud is chosen with 
reference to the prevailing wind, protection from the sun's 
rays, or best to form the top of the tree. It is well to 
place the bud on the shady side of the stock, if possible. 
Should the locality be subject to strong prevailing winds, 
the bud will withstand more wind if placed on the side 
of the stock toward the wind. 

The simplest form of budding is that known as shield- 
budding or T-budding. A T-shaped incision is made in 
the bark and the corners of the bark below the transverse 
cut raised to facilitate starting the bud into the opening. 
The bud is then cut from the bud-stick by starting the knife 
half an inch below the bud, cutting under and to about 
the same distance above the bud. This gives a long bud, 
which is especially desirable in our dry climate. In cut- 
ting under the bud, the knife should be run deep enough 
to leave a small shield of wood. Figure 55 shows the 
various steps in the process of shield-budding (which is 
the usual mode) . 

A simpler method of lifting the bud, at least for the 
beginner, is to start the knife as before, and cut sharply 
into the wood to about one-third the diameter of the stick 



170 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



and then upward under the bud, making a tongue about 
an inch long. The knife is then run across the tongue 
half an inch above the bud, cutting through and lifting 
the bark at this point. The bud is then grasped between 
the thumb and first finger and lifted, 
leaving the wood on the stick, as 
shown at h. While the removal of 
the wood from under the bud is no 
particular advantage, the method is 
simple- and gives the inexperienced 
budder a larger percentage of good 
buds. The writers have lifted 
thousands of buds in this way with 
the best of success. It is difficult 
to cut buds in this way from some 
varieties of cherry and plum with 
thin bark, but it works well on the 
apple, pear, peach, apricot, and the 
heavy-barked plum. Of course, it 
would be impossible to lift dormant 
buds in this way for spring budding. 
The bud is slipped into place, as 
shown at a, and well wrapped with 
raffia or soft wrapping twine . About 
four wraps below and three above, 
so spaced as to close the whole 
opening, is sufficient. In wrapping, 
the common practice is to start be- 
low, and by crossing over the first 
end and running the last end under the bud is wrapped 
without a knot. The tying material is usually cut in the 




Fig. 55. — The Opera- 
tion of Budding. 



Top-working Fruit Trees 171 

desired lengths beforehand, and if raffia is used, it should 
be kept moist, as it ties better. 

On healthy young wood, the buds will unite within ten 
days to two weeks. Then the wrapping should be cut 
by drawing a knife across it on the side of the stock op- 
posite the bud. Should the stock be making a slow growth, 
there need be no hurry about cutting the tie. The only 
thing to be guarded against is that the wrap does not cut 
into the bark, for this pressure interferes with the flow 
of sap, and tends to throw the bud into premature growth; 
this often means a loss of the September bud. 

The bud set in August and September should remain 
dormant over winter. The following spring, as soon as 
the buds on the top of the stock begin to push out, the 
stock is cut away. Should the stock be cut off too early 
in the spring, or too close, there is danger of the stub 
drying out to the injury of the bud. Some persons recom- 
mend leaving a longer stub to which the young growing 
shoot from the bud may be tied until it is well estab- 
lished. This saves some buds from being blown out, but 
necessitates a second cutting in midsummer to allow the 
stub to heal over. 

We have said that buds for fall budding should be taken 
from the current year's growth. The common practice 
is to cut the terminal growth from bearing trees. The 
leaves are trimmed off at once, leaving a small part of 
the leafstalk with which to handle the bud. Bud- 
sticks trimmed in this way may be stored in a cool, damp 
place and kept for some time without injury. The leaf- 
stalks, however, will loosen and drop off in many cases 
if stored over ten days; this does no harm^ but some 



172 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

budders miss the little handle in inserting the bud. The 
first few buds at the base of the stick are generally poorly 
developed and should be discarded, while those near the 
tip are too immature to be used. As a rule, not over 
half of the new growth cut in early September will carry 
buds suitable for budding. The sticks should be carried 
in a damp cloth to avoid drying out. 



CHAPTER X 

THE PROPAGATION OF ORCHARD TREES 

Plants are propagated by seeds, separating and divid- 
ing, layers, cuttings, and by budding and grafting. The 
grower of orchard-fruits is interested more particularly 
in the propagation of trees, so that only this phase of the 
subject will be considered. 

Propagation of the Apple 

In the case of the apple, the stocks are grown from seed. 
Many seedlings are imported from Europe, particularly 
from France, but many seedlings are also grown in various 
parts of the United States. French crab stock is often 
spoken of as being exceptionally vigorous. Such seedlings 
are grown merely from the seed of wild seedling apple 
trees of that country. They are of the same species as 
our common apple. This stock probably does have the 
merit of being less variable than that produced from 
more highly developed varieties that do not come true to 
seed. 

In this country, the seeds are commonly washed from 
pomace from cider mills. They are sown at once, or at 
least before they become dried out, in narrow drills in 

173 



174 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

well-prepared land. At the end of the first season, the 
little trees are dug and the largest may be root-grafted 
during the winter or planted in nursery rows to be budded 
the following summer. The smaller sizes must be grown 
another season before they are suitable for working. 

Dwarf apple trees are secured by top-working our com- 
mon varieties on stocks of small-stature forms of apple. 
There are two dwarf races or varieties used for this 
purpose, known as the Paradise and the Doucin, both 
of which are forms of the common apple. The Paradise 
is mostly used, as it gives the smaller trees, they being 
mere shrubs. The cions, being of much stronger growing 
varieties, are not sufficiently nourished to enable them to 
make a vigorous growth; consequently, the trees always 
remain small, but most of them will require severe prun- 
ing to prevent them from making a more vigorous growth 
than is desired. 

No small amount of interest has been taken in recent 
years in the possibility of combating woolly aphis by 
propagation trees on Northern Spy roots, as this variety 
is practically immune from attacks by this insect. Seed 
from Northern Spy apples will not reproduce the variety; 
consequently other means must be resorted to. One 
of the common methods is to graft a long Northern Spy 
cion on a short piece-root. If planted deep, the cion 
will send out roots; then the trees may be transplanted 
at the end of the season, when the nurse-root is removed. 
The foster-mother style of root-grafting may be used to 
advantage for this purpose. The top of this tree may 
be worked over to the desired variety, and the largest 
lateral roots may be used for further propagation. 



The Propagation of Orchard Trees 175 

Root-grafts are made by inserting a cion on a root or 
piece of a root, usually of a seedling tree. When the 
entire root of the seedling is used, a whole root-graft is 
the result. More commonly, however, sections of roots, 
about three inches long, are used. There has been much 
controversy over the superiority of the whole-root over 
the piece-root, or vice versa, but the consensus of opinion 
now seems to be that there is very little difference between 
the two when both are well grown and equally vigorous. 
However, a small weak piece-root will usually result in an 
inferior tree. 

Propagation by budding has rapidly grown in favor, 
until at the present time a large percentage of the nursery 
stock is propagated in this way. This is particularly 
true in the large nursery centers of the East. 

The seedhngs to be budded are usually transplanted to 
nursery rows in the spring after they have made one 
season's growth (from the seed). The succeeding August 
the majority of them should be large enough to bud. 
The stocks are prepared for the budder by removing the 
leaves and branches from around their bases. The bud- 
ders follow and insert the buds in the stocks as close to 
the ground as will admit of ease in working, and preferably 
on the north side of the tree. Boys are usually employed 
to tie the buds. A skilled workman will set 3000 or more 
buds in a day, but 2000 is considered to be a good day's 
work. 

In about two weeks after the buds are set, the parts 
should be united. The bandages must now be cut, for 
if left too long, constriction of the stems and interference 
with nutrition will result. 



176 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

The buds remain dormant until the following spring, 
when they start into growth with the rest of the tree. 
The stocks are now cut off just above the buds, and the 
strength of the strong root forces the bud into vigorous 
growth, and new tops are soon formed, often growing to 
a height of six feet the first season. It is in this way that 
strong yearling whips are produced, a growth difficult to 
secure in root-grafted trees. 

As has been noted elsewhere, we prefer yearling trees 
and, generally speaking, well-grown yearlings can be 
secured only by budding. We also think that in the 
majority of cases better-rooted trees are secured by this 

method. 

Propagation of the Pear 

Pear trees are propagated in the same way as apple 
trees, although in practice they are seldom root-grafted, 
as the trees produced by this method are usually un- 
satisfactory. 

Pear trees are dwarfed by working pear cions on quince 
stocks. The stocks are usually budded. The buds are 
set as close to the ground as possible, for the reason that 
it is desirable to have the point of union below ground 
when the trees are planted in the orchard. 

Some varieties of pear do not take well on quince stock; 
consequently a system known as double-working must 
be resorted to if such kinds are to be dwarfed. This 
consists in working the quince to a variety of pear that 
is known to make a good union and, after this top has 
attained sufficient size, to bud or graft it to the desired 
variety. 



The Propagation of Orchard Trees 177 

Propagation of the Peach 

Peach trees are almost universally budded. The pits 
from which stocks are grown should be collected as soon 
as possible after the fruit is ripe, so that they may not dry 
out. They may be planted in the nursery row at once, 
or they may be kept in bulk in any place where they will 
not become dry and where they will be exposed to the 
action of frost. This treatment will result in cracking 
most of the pits; those that are not cracked at the open- 
ing of spring must be cracked by hand if prompt germina- 
tion is desired; otherwise some of them may he dormant 
until the following spring. 

If the seedlings do well, most of them will be large 
enough for budding the August succeeding sowing, when 
they are handled the same as apple trees. The seedlings 
that are too small for budding the first season may be 
cut back to the ground the following spring, and thus 
a vigorous growth may be secured. 

June-budded peach trees are usually produced in the 
South, where seedlings of a size to admit of budding are 
secured by June of the year in which the seed germinates. 
As soon as the buds have 'Haken," a part of the top is 
removed, and after they have made a vigorous start, the 
top is entirely removed. Salable trees are produced by 
this method in one season. When well grown, there is no 
objection to a June bud, but unless the season is very long, 
there is always the danger of the tops being immature 
when cold weather comes on. 

Peaches may be worked on plum seedlings, but this is 
unusual. In those cases in which numerous sprouts occur 



178 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

in the peach orchard, it is probable that plum seedlings 
were used for stocks. 

Propagation of the Apricot, Plum, and Cherry 

The apricot may be propagated on either apricot, 
peach, or plum stocks, but the peach is most used. The 
methods of propagation are the same as for the peach. 

Plum trees are worked on a variety of plum stocks, 
as there is a number, of different species. Special ad- 
vantages are asserted for some of them. Peach seedlings 
are also sometimes used. Probably the best stocks come 
from seeds of inferior forms of the common domestica 
plum. These usually come true to seed, and thus give 
more uniform seedhngs. Budding is the usual method 
employed in propagating plums, although root-grafts are 
sometimes made. 

Cherries are also commonly budded. The seeds of 
several wild or spontaneous species are used in growing 
stocks, the Mazzard and the Mahaleb being most in favor. 



\ CHAPTER XI 

1 THE TILLAGE OF ORCHARDS 

CLEi^N tillage has been practiced by the majority of 
arid-country orchardists from the time the first trees were 
planted. It would be difficult to explain just why this 
plan has been followed, but it is probable that it was 
copied from California. While a certain amount of 
tillage is necessary, we wish to state emphatically that 
we do not believe in any system by which the soil is ex- 
posed to the action of arid sunshine during the heat of 
summer. In fact, we hold that this practice has been 
very much overdone and that the older orchards are in 
some cases beginning to show the effects. We may well 
profit by the experience of fruit-growers in other states, 
and in this connection the following quotation should be 
instructive : — 

"For a quarter of a century great areas of vineyards 
yielded thousands of tons of grapes. All these years, 
under the stimulus of success, these same areas of land 
received clean, annual, and (may we not truthfully add) 
merciless cultivation. The natural fertility of the soil 
was gradually reduced by enormous crops of fruit and its 
physical condition lowered year by year, without the res- 
toration of any considerable amount of plant-food or 
vegetable matter. After the lapse of many years, from 

179 



180 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

various troubles and diseases, the vigor and fruitfulress 
of the vineyards waned, and the industry began to languish. 
Hundreds of acres of vines were pulled out and the !and 
immediately and without improvement set to peach irees 
which, for another long term of years, and under the usual 
relentless culture without the addition of humus ir any 
form, thrived and produced numerous, heavy crops of 
fruit. Again, as the remaining store of fertility became 
further depleted by the searching root systems of adult 
peach trees, enemies began to appear and make their 
presence felt. San Jose scale and leaf curl fell upon the 
island as a scourge and came near writing the final chapter 
in the history of successful peach culture there. With, the 
destruction of great areas of orchards by the scale and the 
injury of thousands upon thousands of trees, upon which 
the scale was not quite successfully combated, it is only 
natural that great discouragement and depression should 
overtake the orchardists, so long accustomed to bountiful 
rewards for labor performed under such favorable con- 
ditions." 

Has not Professor Green ^ truthfully portrayed what 
we have a right to expect will happen to the Rocky Moun- 
tain fruit-growers if our system of orchard management 
is not changed ? No sane man should hope to continue to 
take large crops of first-class fruit from an orchard for very 
many years without doing something to restore the lost 
fertility. True, we do not expect to have many of the 
Eastern orchard insects and diseases to contend with, but 
they are possibilities. We have, however, been faithful in 
giving clean cultivation, and when one comes to think 
of it, do not the expressions '^ merciless cultivation" and 
''relentless culture" aptly describe this system? 

1 Green, W. J., and Ballou, F. H., Ohio Expt. Sta. Bui. 157, p. 118. 



The Tillage of Orchards 181 

If we were to follow our own inclination, we would close 
this chapter at this point and refer all who are interested 
to the subject of fertilizers and shade-crops. But an un- 
derstanding of the subject will help us to correct mistakes, 
and for this reason, at least, a discussion will be desirable. 

Bailey ^ has summarized the benefits of tillage as 
follows : — 

1. Tillage improves the physical condition of the land — 
(a) By fining the soil, and thereby presenting 

greater feeding surface to the roots; 
(6) By increasing the depth of the soil, and thereby 

giving a greater foraging and roothold area to 

the plant ; 
(c) By warming and drying the soil in spring; 
{d) By reducing the extremes of temperature and 

moisture. 

2. Tillage may save moisture — 

(e) By increasing the water-holding capacity of the 

soil; 
(/) By checking evaporation. 

3. Tillage may augment chemical activities — 
{g) By aiding in setting free plant-food; 
Qi) By promoting nitrification; 

(^) By hastening the decomposition of organic 

matter; 
(j) By extending these agencies {g, h, i) to greater 

depths of the soil. 

A composite of the practices of a number of the most 
successful fruit-growers results as follows: Use the 

1 Bailey, L. H., "The Principles of Fruit-growing," p. 139. 



182 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

turning plow in the spring, each year or often enough to 
prevent the ground from becoming hard. Follow the plow 
with a harrow or disc if lumpy, and this with the smooth- 
ing harrow. Some use a float instead of the harrow. The 
subsequent tillage or cultivation consists in going over the 
ground often enough to prevent a crust from forming and 
to keep the weeds down. This necessitates tilling after each 
irrigation and after rains. The Planet Jr. cultivator and 
the smoothing harrow are used for this purpose. Tillage 
is continued until the branches are bent down by the fruit, 
which will average about the first of August. 

Winter tillage is practiced when the condition of the 
ground will permit. Two tillings in the winter is con- 
sidered to be about correct. The Planet Jr. cultivator or 
a disk harrow is used for this purpose. 

Turning now to the classification of the benefits of til- 
lage as given on page 181, it would seem at first thought 
that the system followed by our best orchardists meets all 
requirements. We find first that tillage improves the 
physical condition of the land. By the physical condition 
is meant its tilth and general make up, whether it is com- 
pact and hard, or whether it is loose and loamy. But any 
one who has traveled among the orchards knows that in 
the majority of cases the soil is far from being loose and 
loamy. On the contrary, it soon is compact, lacks fiber, 
and it becomes puddled after irrigation or rains. We 
have even seen orchard soils so hard two inches below 
the surface that an opening could be made into them only 
with the aid of a pick. And yet thorough cultivation 
had been given the land for years. Evidently something 
is wrong, so we follow on down the classification and find 



The Tillage of Orchards 183 

under (^) that tillage may hasten the decomposition of 
organic matter. Here we believe is the cause of our diffi- 
culties. Cultivation, bare soils, and intense sunshine do 
hasten decomposition and in fact the burning up of such 
material. The classification is correct, but we have 
failed to adapt our system of cultivation to the climatic 
condition. The best advice has insisted that tillage and 
green-manuring (or cover-cropping) are complementary 
practices of equal importance; in the arid regions, we have 
emphasized only the tillage. 

We are absolutely dependent on decaying organic matter 
to keep the soil in proper physical condition, that is, 
loamy and friable. But upon examination we find that 
this material is largely absent, having been sacrificed as a 
burnt offering to the gods of clean cultivation. 

A certain amount of cultivation or clean tillage is nec- 
essary, but one need not wear out his soil in an effort to 
supply it. As will be seen in the next chapter, we advo- 
cate growing a shade-crop in the orchard in hot weather. 
If this system is adopted, the land should be plowed at 
least every second season, depending on the soil. By 
so doing a sufficient amount of tillage will be given, and at 
the same time organic matter will be supplied. 

In the case of young orchards, unless the ground is very 
poor, some hoed crop will probably be advisable. Such 
crops shade the ground, and their growth need not interfere 
with the proper development of the trees. Among the 
crops used are cantaloupes, potatoes, squashes, and corn. 



CHAPTER XII 

FERTILIZERS AND SHADE-CROPS 

We often hear it said that western soils ^ are inex- 
haustible ; and indeed it is true that they are fairly rich in 
many of the elements of fertility. But we now know from 
experieuce that land cropped year after year to wheat 
becomes unprofitable, that even the second crop of pota- 
toes is rarely satisfactory, and that all fruit association men 
and local dealers know that small apples and pie peaches 
are becoming more and more common. 

1 Some of our readers have no doubt seen the papers on various phases 
of soil fertility published in recent years by the Bureau of Soils of the 
United States Department of Agriculture. Their investigations seem to 
show that there is no such thing as soil exhaustion, as generally under- 
stood, but rather that there is an inexhaustible supply of all of the 
mineral elements of plant-food in ordinary soils. They contend that 
the decreased yields of the various crops is due to poisonous sub- 
stances excreted by the roots of plants. Thus, according to this view, 
any crop may soon poison the land to such an extent that proper devel- 
opment of the plants is hindered, and decreased yields result. The 
remedy, according to this theory, is naturally a proper rotation of crops 
and methods of soil sanitation. The idea that the roots excrete poison- 
ous materials is an old one, and new evidence lends support to it ; but 
that this is accountable for all of the many cases of unsatisfactory 
yields is difficult to believe. At any rate the writers prefer for the pres- 
ent to adhere to the well-established theories, believing that the avail- 
able supply of plant-food may be depleted. The presence of decaying 
vegetable matter in the soil improves its physical condition, helps to 
set plant-food free, and, in a raeasure, takes the place of crop rotation in 
the orchard. This may best be supplied and conserved under arid con- 
ditions by the use of shade-crops. 

184 



Fertilizers and Shade-croups 185 

In several western regions the land was planted con- 
tinuously to wheat in the early days, and, as any one would 
now expect, the soil became depleted and in some instances 
the farmers faced bankruptcy. This same land is now 
producing immense crops of wheat, oats, sugar-beets, 
potatoes, and alfalfa. What has brought about the 
change? Alfalfa was introduced about the year 1860. 
It was adapted to our conditions from the first, and large 
areas of this land were soon growing luxuriant crops of 
this unexcelled forage plant. The feeding of animals was 
then in its infancy, and alfalfa soon became a drug on the 
market. It was then found that alfalfa sod could be suc- 
cessfully broken, and, much to the surprise of all, when 
planted to wheat, the yield per acre was far greater than 
when the land was first subdued. 

What had alfalfa done to the soil ? It had added some 
nitrogen, which it is able to gather from the soil-air by 
the aid of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria. It also brought 
up from the lower depths, ten or more feet below the 
surface, potassium and phosphorus. These two impor- 
tant elements of plant-food were deposited in the surface 
soil in the shattered leaves and stems as crop after crop 
was removed, and when the sod was broken, the decaying 
roots and stubble added their quota. But more impor- 
tant than all these, decaying vegetable matter and its 
products had been added to the soil. Without decaying 
vegetable matter the physical condition of the soil is 
almost ruined for agricultural purposes, and the hosts 
of bacteria that perform many essential activities are 
prevented from developing. 

Our orchards have been planted, for the most part, on 



186 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



desert land, and in most cases the land was cleared of the 
native growth and planted directly to trees. Thus there 
was little or no vegetable matter in the ground ; and since 
our growers have been very insistent on clean cultivation 
and stable manure is scarce, little has been added. Does 
it not stand to reason that continued cropping to apples 
or to peaches will bring the same disastrous results that 
befell the wheat-growers ? 

The following information compiled by Roberts^ is 
valuable in this connection. Table IV shows the amounts 
of plant-food that are removed in the grain and straw in 
twenty years of continuous cropping to wheat. It is as- 
sumed that an average of 15 bushels of grain and 35 pounds 
of straw are removed from an acre each year : 



Table IV. Amounts of Plant-food removed from an Acre 
IN Twenty Years' Continuous Cropping to Wheat 





Nitrogen 


Phos. Acid 


Potash 


Value 


Grain . . . 

Straw . . . 


lb. 
424.80 
234.78 


lb. 

160.20 

50.40 


lb. 
109.80 
214.20 


$79.86 
48.37 



In contrast with this, the same author gives similar 
figures of the plant-food that may be expected to be carried 
away in 20 years in fruit and leaves from an acre of bear- 
ing apple orchard. The figures represent 20 years of the 
productive life of a New York apple orchard between the 
ages of 1 3 and 33 years, and does not include the materials 
stored in the wood of the tree. 

1 Roberts, I. P., Cornell Exp. Sta. Bui. 103. 



Fertilizers and Shade-crops 



187 



Table V. 


Amounts of Plant-food removed from an Acre 
OF Apple Orchard in Twenty Years 




Nitrogen 


Phos. Acid 


Potash 


Value 


Apples . . . 
Leaves . . . 


lb. 
498.60 
456.75 


lb. 

38.25 

126.00 


lb. 

728.55 
441.00 


$110.26 
97.17 



Total value in wheat, grain, and straw for 20 years, $128.23. 
Total value in apple, fruit, and leaves for 20 years, $207.45. 

These figures show that an apple crop takes more fer- 
tility from the land than wheat; and most farmers know 
from experience that continuous cropping to most farm- 
crops leads to disaster. The day of reckoning does not 
come quite so soon, perhaps, with mismanaged orchards, 
but it is none the less certain. The fact that trees grow 
to great size and live for many years in forests does not 
apply to growing apples unless, perchance, they are grown 
for cider. The quicker the fruit-grower realizes that each 
crop of fruit makes large inroads on the available supply 
of plant-food, the quicker will he waken to the fact that 
scrupulously clean cultivation is not all there is in the 
handling of orchard land. 

There are thirty-eight elements that may enter into the 
make up of a plant; ten of this number are considered to 
be essential to its proper growth. These essential ele- 
ments are as follows : carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, 
sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and 
iron. Normal development of a plant is impossible if a 
single one of these elements is absent. Only three of this 



188 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

number are considered, ordinarily, in the fertilizing of soil, 
namely, nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus, because the 
others are normally present in most soils or in the air 
in sufficient amount. 

Nitrogen is essential to vigorous growth, and an over- 
supply in the soil often promotes a rank growth of twigs 
and foliage at the expense of fruit-production. 

Potassium or potash is especially important in fruit- 
growing, since it aids in developing color and is the base 
in combination with fruit acids. It also forms more than 
50 per cent of the ash of fruits and constitutes a large pro- 
portion of the ash of the wood of fruit trees. 

Phosphorus is probabl}^ not so important in fruit-grow- 
ing as in grain production, as it enters largely into the com- 
position of seeds. But it is an essential constituent of tree 
and fruit, and aids particularly in the proper ripening of the 
latter. 

These three substances are supplied in various forms in 
commercial fertilizers, and it would seem to be a simple 
matter to provide any one or all of them as the individual 
orchard seemed to demand. Such manures are used very 
extensively by orchardists in the eastern states, but so 
far as we know, commercial fertilizers have not been tried 
in the orchards of the inter-mountain states, and we hope 
that their use will not become necessary for many years to 
come. In any event, freight rates are so high as to make 
their use almost prohibitive. Then, the benefit to be 
derived from their use under our conditions is problem- 
atical, as the following experience would indicate. 

Potato-growers feel that they should grow two crops 
in succession after turning under alfalfa sod. The second 



Fertilizers and Shade-crops 189 

crop, however, is rarely as good as the first and is very 
often produced at a loss. To one who is familiar with 
farming methods as practiced in the East, it would seem 
to be a simple matter to bring up the yield of the second 
crop by an application of commercial fertilizers. Ac- 
cordingly, a series of acre plots was laid off in a potato 
field to which commercial fertilizers were applied. High- 
grade nitrate of soda, sulfate of potash, and phosphoric 
acid in the form of dissolved bone meal were applied 
separately and in various combinations. These experi- 
ments were carried through four years, and at the end of 
that time it could not be shown that the fertilizers had 
in any case produced an increased yield over the unfer- 
tihzed plots. 

How, then, are we to maintain the fertility of our 
orchard lands ? We have already seen what are the 
benefits to wheat and potatoes of plowing under alfalfa, 
so why not adopt a system of green-manuring for the 
orchard ? The potato-growers do not think of growing 
more than two crops of potatoes after alfalfa has been 
turned under. If they can afford to grow alfalfa for the 
purpose of producing better potatoes and in the mean- 
time secure but two crops in five years, surely the orchard- 
ist can adopt similar methods. There will be no rota- 
tion with the orchard crop, but an actual saving in labor 
may be made, since there is little or no cultivation while 
the green-manure is occupying the ground. The potato- 
grower secures some returns, to be sure, from the alfalfa 
hay and from the grain with which it is seeded, but the 
potato crop is the money-maker. 

We have already noticed both in this and in the 



190 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

preceding chapter what are some of the effects of plowing 
under green-crops. But the importance of the subject 
will warrant a repetition. The following summary has 
been adapted in part from Bailey's writings on cover- 
crops : — 

1. Green-manures improve the physical condition of the 
land: — 

(a) Shade the surface soil from intense sun in summer, 
thereby protecting the trunk and limbs from 
the reflection of the sun from the soil; 

(6) Prevent the very rapid burning of organic matter in 
the soil; 

(c) Conserve some of the surface moisture, and prevent 
crusts from forming; 

{d) Prevent soils from cementing and puddling; 

(e) Prevent the rapid drainage of water from loose, porous 
soils ; 

(/) Prevent one form of freezing dry. 

2. Green-manures modify or influence chemical ac- 
tivities: — 

{g) They catch and hold some of the leaching nitrates; 

Qi) Render plant-food material available; 

{i) Appropriate nitrogen, if leguminous crops are grown. 

Shade-crops 

Cover-crops have become very popular in the East 
in orchard management. The name is derived from the 
fact that the seed is sown in the fall or late summer and 
sufficient growth results so that the ground is covered 
and protected during the winter. The crop is intended 



Fertilizers and Shade-crops 191 

primarily for a green-manure, but under eastern condi- 
tions it cannot occupy the land during the growing season. 
The trees usually need all of the available moisture during 
that period, and clean cultivation is practiced to conserve 
it. As soon as the trees have made their growth for the 
season, the cover-crop is planted, and its growth uses 
the surplus moisture, and thus the trees are aided in matur- 
ing before cold weather comes on. Our conditions are 
quite different, from the fact that the water is largely 
under man's control. We think that our conditions 
demand a cover for the soil far more in the summer than 
in the winter. And, moreover, nearly as much protection 
is afforded in the winter if the crop is plowed under late 
in fall, as if the plants are allowed to stand. We therefore 
propose the name '' shade-crops,'' for a system which we 
hope may come into general use in the semiaricl region. 

Many orchardists have seen young trees killed by run- 
ning water close to them during a hot day, the reflection 
of the sun from the water causing sun-scald. It is thought 
that reflection from a hot, baked soil may cause similar 
injuries. 

As has been noted, arid soils are very deficient in de- 
caying vegetable matter, and this material is very rapidly 
dissipated when it is supplied. A summer cover will 
perform one of its most important functions in prevent- 
ing at least a part of this loss. 

Examine a moderately heavy soil in an orchard where 
a manurial crop is growing. The surface soil under the 
plants will be found to be cool, moist, and friable, while 
adjacent, unprotected land will be found to be hot, dry, 
and compact. This difference is due not alone to the 



192 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

shade afforded by the plants, but to the transpiration of 
immense quantities of water as well. It has been found, 
for example, that a grass plant will give off its own weight 
of water every twenty-four hours in hot, dry summer 
weather. To be sure, it requires more water to irrigate an 
orchard when any crop other than the trees is grown, 
but when sufficient water can be had, this feature need 
not be considered. 

It is well known that our heavier soils, particularly 
if they are strongly alkaline, become so compact that it is 
almost impossible to till them after the first irrigation 
in the spring. It is also true that continued clean tillage, 
particularly if plowing is omitted, will make almost any 
of our soils compact. It is this condition that prevents 
the proper development of absorbing roots and the setting 
free of the native fertility of the soil. A few of our fruit- 
growers have shown that green-manures in combination 
with the necessary plowing will work wonders with such 
soils as well as with the appearance of the trees growing 
on them. 

Earthworms do damage in some orchards for the 
reason that they puddle the soil, and much of the irriga- 
tion water seems to disappear through the channels 
that they make deep in the ground. A supply of de- 
caying organic matter should do much to overcome these 
defects. 

Soils are occasionally found which are so porous that 
water leaches through them much as if through a sieve. 
If fiber can be incorporated in such land by plowing 
under green-crops, this tendency to leach will be overcome, 
to a certain extent at least. 



^ Fertilizers and Shade-crops 193 

Many young trees are lost each year in the colder 
districts as a result of '^ freezing dry." This term is used 
to denote a condition that may be induced in different 
ways. The usual cause is merely a lack of water in the 
soil in the winter. Trees give off water in cold weather 
from twigs and limbs, and if the supply is not replenished, 
death results. A similar effect is produced when a damp 
soil is frozen to such a depth that root action is suspended. 
The tops of such trees usually die after a feeble attempt 
at putting forth leaves, while the roots are usually in 
perfect condition. 

The lack of water may be avoided by winter or late 
fall irrigation. The deep freezing presents more of a 
problem, but we think that it may be prevented to a 
considerable extent by the use of shade-crops. True, 
the system we propose contemplates plowing in the fall, 
but eastern experience proves that as much protection 
from frost is secured when a crop is plowed into the land 
in the fall as when it is left standing throughout the winter. 

The winter of 1903 to 1904 was very severe in the East, 
and in some sections hundreds of orchard trees, partic- 
ularly peach trees, were destroyed. Green ^ made a 
survey of the injured orchards the following summer, 
and found that injury occurred only on improverished 
and bare soils. A cover-crop, sod, good growth of weeds, 
or stable manure afforded almost complete protection 
from the cold. And, moreover, and what is more impor- 
tant for our purpose, he found that when such materials 
had been recently plowed under, the protection was just 
as effective. 

1 Green, W. J., Ohio Agri. Exp. Sta. Bui. 157, 1904. 
O 



194 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

Humus: What it is and what it Does 

Popular writers on horticultural topics have woefully 
confused humus with decaying organic matter, and have 
implied that all organic material is humus as soon as it is 
mixed with the earth and decay has set in. The fact 
is, humus is the final product of organic decay, and as 
such has entirely different effects on soils than have 
organic materials that are undergoing the processes of 
decomposition. 

When green-manure is plowed into the soil, various 
low forms of plant life, including fungi, yeasts, and bacteria, 
attack it, thus inducing decay. FraenkeP ^' found in 
the cultivated soil of Liebefeld 5,750,000, in meadow 
land 9,400,000, in a manure pile 44,500,000, bacteria per 
cubic centimeter. These figures seem high for so small 
a quantity of material, but taking the average size of 
a bacterium, a cubic centimeter might readily contain 
six hundred millions." 

Other forms of bacteria begin to multiply as soon as 
fermentation sets in. Different organisms have different 
and important functions in promoting chemical activities 
in the soil; plant-food elements are set free, changed 
and combined into substances that plants can use. No 
less than five different acids are generated by the processes 
of decay, carbonic acid being among the most important. 

Sackett ^ found that clover taken in full bloom in June, 
when ground and mixed with soil at the rate of 10 tons 
per acre, gave off at the end of three days carbon 

1 Hilgard, "Soils," p. 143. 

2 Sackett, W. G., unpublished notes. 



Fertilizers and Shade-crops 195 

dioxid^ corresponding to 3812 pounds per acre foot. 
This action continued through a period of three weeks, 
gradually diminishing, however, until at the end of that 
period very little of the gas was evolved. One hundred 
tons per acre of red clover treated in the same way gave 
off after twelve days five tons of carbon dioxid per acre 
foot. This investigator also tested the solvent action 
of pure carbon dioxid on various materials. Pure ground 
bone meal was placed in a flask, and carbon dioxid was 
allowed to pass through it. At the end of one hour 
2.11 per cent of the insoluble phosphoric acid had been 
made soluble. At the end of two hours 5.21 per cent 
was made soluble. Ground phosphate rock treated in 
the same way gave the following results: after one hour 
.16 per cent of the insoluble phosphoric acid had been 
made soluble; in two hours .28 per cent. Magnesium 
phosphate similarly treated yielded 16.33 per cent in 
one hour and 22.35 per cent in two hours of soluble 
phosphoric acid. 

Carbonic acid is, then, an important agent in dissolving 
rock particles, and with its aid latent fertility is brought 
into a condition to be used by plants. 

Organic matter is often almost entirely consumed 
under arid conditions very quickly after it is incorporated 
with the soil. The heat of the sun in conjunction with 
insufficient moisture produces conditions which oxidize the 
material, or, in other words, burn it much as though 
it had been consumed by fire; hence the '^burning out 
of soil," an expression common among farmers. This 

^ Carbon dioxid and carbonic acid gas are synonymous; when com- 
bined with water, carbonic acid is formed. 



196 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

change in organic matter is no doubt begun by soil or- 
ganisms, while the later stages are probably of a chemical 
nature. 

The decay that results in humus takes place at moderate 
temperatures. Organisms do not develop in a low tem- 
perature, and at a high temperature oxidation or burning 
results. An apparent contradiction to this statement 
is found in the difficulty with which unrotted stable 
manure decays when plowed into land, if moisture is 
not abundant. The lack of moisture probably prevents 
the development of bacteria in sufficient numbers to begin 
decay, consequently the chemical changes that result in 
burning do not occur. The presence of such material is 
a detriment to growing plants as it keeps the soil so open 
that an undue amount of moisture is permitted to escape. 
This effect is so noticeable that many of the so-called 
dry farmers make no use of stable manure. This wanton 
waste might easily be prevented by composting, as there 
is sufficient moisture in the rain and snow thoroughly to 
rot manure treated in this way. 

The compound resulting after organic decay is com- 
pleted is humus. Such decay results in a dark-colored 
material, without organic structure, soluble in alkalies 
after the lime has been removed. Humus gives a dark 
''rich" color to otherwise light-colored soils. It is com- 
plex in composition. It is especially important as being 
a reservoir of nitrogen. Much of the nitrogen that is 
brought to the soil by leguminous plants, as well as that 
which is stored in the plant in the processes of growth, 
is not available to growing plants until the humus stage is 
reached. 



Fertilizers and Shade-crops 197 

Humus usually exists only in small quantities in arid 
soils, and often is entirely absent when clean cultivation 
without manuring has been practiced. It may also be 
present in small quantities along with partially decayed 
organic matter. Much of this valuable material is lost 
by constant clean cultivation and the consequent burning 
of the organic materials, before it reaches the stage in 
which humifaction may take place. A large part of the 
loss of nitrogen could be prevented, and many of the 
benefits conserved, by shading the soil. 

While it is no doubt true that humus aids in improving 
the physical condition of the soil, it is probable that much 
of the beneficial effect, such as giving fiber and improving 
tilth, as well as increasing the water-holding capacity, 
is due in a much larger degree to the partially decayed 
organic matter. 

The Leguminous Green-crops 

Several leguminous crops are known to be of great im- 
portance in orchard management, but their value needs 
to be still further emphasized. By leguminous plants is 
meant the members of the family that includes the beans, 
peas, cowpeas, clovers, alfalfa, and vetches. These are the 
only plants of agricultural importance, so far as now 
known, that have the power of taking nitrogen from the 
air and converting it into combinations that other plants 
can use. Thus they actually add plant-food to the soil; 
and nitrogen is the most expensive element to supply in 
commercial form as well as the most difficult to keep, 
since it is readily dissipated in gaseous form. A certain 
species of bacterium Hves on the roots of vigorous legumes 



198 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

where the swollen regions or tubercles are formed. This 
low form of plant life is able to take the free nitrogen from 
the soil-air and change it into forms that plants can use. 
Consequently, legumes can be grown on land from which 
nitrogen has been exhausted. 

It is also found that leguminous plants do not thrive in 
soil where the accompanying bacteria are absent if the 
nitrogen content of the soil is low. This led to the mak- 
ing of pure cultures of the bacteria which are now sup- 
plied in commercial form. These cultures, after being 
diluted and after sufficient multiplication of bacteria has 
taken place, are sprinkled over the land; or better still, 
seeds are soaked in the culture material just before plant- 
ing. Such cultures have not been as successful as was 
anticipated, and in the meantime a mass of overdrawn 
articles on the subject has been printed in magazines and 
papers. The result is that many farmers have been led 
to think that by simply applying the cultures to their 
land wonderful benefit will result to any and all crops. 
The truth is, these cultures have no direct effect on any 
plants other than the legumes. And, moreover, should 
one wish to secure such material, he must designate the 
particular crop he intends to grow. Cultures from clover 
bacteria would not be expected to have any effect on beans 
or alfalfa. It would be idle to apply these cultures to land 
that is already producing good crops of any of these plants; 
and, moreover, the whole subject is yet in an experimental 
stage. 

How to use Shade-crops 

What crops shall be grown for shade-crops and how they 
shall be handled, is a difficult question to answer, as the 



Fertilizers and Shade-crops 199 

practice is new. The system of cover-crops as advocated 
in the East will not apply to the arid regions, for various 
reasons. We cannot plant in the fall and expect to get 
much growth to plow under in the spring because of the 
short seasons. Then it might not be advisable to irrigate 
at the particular time the seed should be sown, as would 
probably need to be done to insure germination. We 
have also found that fall-plowing is better suited to our 
conditions than spring-plowing, particularly if a crop or 
manure is to be turned under. If a mass of vegetable 
matter is plowed under in the spring, the ground is likely 
to remain so porous that difficulty is experienced in irri- 
gating. The ground at the upper end of the row soon be- 
comes saturated, but still a large head of water must be 
used to force it through to the lower end. Naturally 
the trees at the upper end are injured. Finally, we think 
that both land and trees will be benefited by keeping the 
surface of the soil shaded in the heat of the summer. 

In the light of our present knowledge it will probably 
be the best plan to prepare the land fairly early in the 
spring and sow the seed at that time. Or, if experience 
shows that we need a certain amount of spring tillage in 
order to aerate the soil and to promote soil activities, the 
planting may be delayed until June. 

Whether, in the case of perennial shade-crops, it will 
be best to let them occupy the land for two seasons, plow- 
ing them under the second fall or not, must be deter- 
mined by experience and individual conditions. It now 
seems best to plow the land at least every second season. 
All of the land may be occupied by the crop in old orchards, 
but with younger trees space must be left for irrigation as 



200 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

well as to prevent the possibility of the crop appropriating 
food and moisture to the detriment of the trees. There 
would also be more danger of injury from small vermin and 
grasshoppers; the latter pest would probably have to be 
reckoned with in the young orchard in any event. 

One must take pains to see that the irrigating furrows 
are kept open, not allowing them to become choked with 
vegetation. Provision must be made that water may be 
as judiciously distributed as though the land were bare. 
The trees should always receive first consideration; do 
not allow the prospects of a few jags of hay to warp judg- 
ment when it comes to a question of the health of the trees. 

Whether or not it will be advisable to remove any of the 
crop for hay must be determined for each orchard. When 
the land has been badly impoverished, or is in poor physi- 
cal condition, all of the growth should be returned to the 
land. 

If it is found that the continued use of legumes is fur- 
nishing too much nitrogen, as will be indicated by a rank 
growth, then a change should be made ; rye or buckwheat 
may be used instead. The kind of plant that will be best 
adapted for use as a shade-crop is yet to be determined, 
and it is likely that different soils and different localities 
will demand different things. 

Red clover is at present most in favor in the arid regions 
among the few who have tried any crop at all. A number 
of orchards have recently been planted to clover, and the 
results are very satisfactory. It has made an excellent 
growth, even close to the trunks of the largest trees 
(Fig. 56). 

Winter vetch has been used to some extent, and it 



202 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

makes a good growth in any of the orchard districts of this 
region. A few orchardists are experimenting with Can- 
ada field peas. They have the advantage that they make 
good feed if one wishes to combine hog-feeding with or- 
charding. The pods will not fill nearly so well, however, 
as they do in the higher altitudes where the climate is much 
cooler. Pea seed should, therefore, be planted as early 
in the season as possible. Cowpeas have been tried to a 
limited extent, but the season in many parts of the arid 
region seems to be rather short for them, and the young 
plants are easily injured by overwatering. In one or- 
chard where we were experimenting with this crop the 
plants made almost no growth, possibly because the proper 
bacteria were not present. 

Alfalfa has been tried by some persons, but at the mere 
mention of the word most orchardists will raise strong 
objection. If it were not so difficult to plow, it would 
certainly be an ideal crop for the purpose. We do not 
wish to give the impression of advocating the use of al- 
falfa, but it is not impossible that a method of handling 
may be devised that will make its use feasible, except in 
stony land. Why not plant it in rows ? — then tillage could 
be given throughout the season if desired. Then if the 
tops are mown off before the seed has set, there ought not 
to be much trouble with its spreading. If the turning plow 
is used when the plants are not over two years old, it is not 
such a difficult matter to cut the roots, and the ground will 
usually need to be plowed that often at least. But if one 
wishes to continue to grow alfalfa in the orchard, it would 
be an advantage not to kill it out, but to have it continue to 
come up year after year. 



CHAPTER XIII 
IRRIGATION IN ORCHARDS 

As with many of the other orchard operations, no 
definite rules can be laid down for the proper application 
of irrigation water. At best we can give only a few of the 
more important points in the practical application of 
water, and with these suggestions in mind the grower must 
work out his own system of irrigation. 

The methods of applying water and the quantity neces- 
sary are largely determined by soil conditions, subsequent 
cultivation, the kind of fruit, and the age of the orchard. 
The orchardist must first thoroughly understand the 
physiological principles discussed in the chapter on ^'The 
Orchard Plant" if he expects to be an inteUigent irrigator. 
He should know in what ways water serves the plant, what 
constitutes ideal soil conditions for the plant, and how to 
judge the needs of the plant by its behavior. 

There are times when the orchard should not be irrigated. 
It is a common opinion among growers that fruit trees 
should not be irrigated when in bloom, and while we have 
no proof that judicious irrigation during the blooming 
period really interferes with the setting of the fruit or the 
normal growth of the tree, it is as well to avoid irrigating 
at this time. The orchard that goes into winter in the 
proper condition does not need so early an irrigation. 

Excessive irrigation in midsummer and later may retard 

203 



204 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

or even prevent the development of fruit-buds for the en- 
suing year. The formation of fruit-buds evidently goes 
forward more rapidly in periods of slow growth. In other 
words, rapid growth apparently depletes the supply of 
elaborated plant-food to such an extent that it interferes 
with the development of fruit-buds, just as a heavy crop 
of fruit may prevent fruit-bud formation. The bearing 
fruit tree should make very little growth after the middle 
of July, and if the orchardist wishes to promote fruitfulness, 
he should not over-irrigate. Of course the present crop 
of fruit cannot be sacrificed in order to insure a crop of 
fruit-buds for the following year, but rampant growth is 
not essential to the proper development of the fruit. In 
withholding water with the idea of promoting fruitful- 
ness, one must avoid letting the ground dry to the extent 
that it will hasten the ripening of the fruit. Fruit checked 
in its growth by dearth of water seldom responds to later 
irrigation. 

Excessive late irrigation may also retard coloring. 
Color naturally comes with maturity, and the injudicious 
use of water may prolong the growing season until the fruit 
has no time in which to color. Every effort should be 
made to get the fruit up to size early in the growing season, 
and then promote coloring by withholding water. 

Growth forced by late irrigation is immature and is^sub- 
ject to winterkilling. The growth of young orchards, 
especially, must be checked by withholding water. The 
date of the last irrigation will vary with different soils, but 
it is safe to say that few young peach orchards should be 
watered after the first of August, and young apple or 
pear trees seldom later than the middle of August. On 



Irrigation in Orchards 205 

some heavy soils summer irrigation must be discontinued 
much earher. All new wood should be well matured be- 
fore frosty and the grower need not be alarmed if the ground 
becomes so dry that some of the foliage turns yellow and 
begins to drop before this time, for the trees will not suffer. 

How Water is held in the Soil 

Water may be found in the soil in three forms: hydro- 
scopic, capillary, or free. The first two forms of water are 
held as a film about the soil particles, and are sometimes 
referred to as '^film moisture." The hydroscopic water is 
the part of the film nearest the soil particle, and it probably 
serves the plant very little. It is even present in road dust, 
and can be driven off only when the temperature is raised 
to the boiling point. 

The outer part of the film on the soil grain represents the 
capillary water, and this is the direct water-supply for the 
plant. It does not flow under the influence of gravity, but 
passes from particle to particle, and thus tends to keep the 
soil uniformly moist. Soil is in ideal condition for plant 
growth when it is well supplied with capillary water. 
Such a soil is moist enough to stick together when pressed 
in the hand, and yet will crumble when broken apart. 

Free water is that which fills the spaces between the soil 
particles. It flows under the influence of gravity, and is 
that part of the soil water carried off by drains. When it 
occupies the part of the soil where roots normally grow, 
it is actually detrimental to the growth of most plants. 
When well below the surface, it serves as a reservoir from 
which water may be drawn by capillary action. Soils 
that contain free water stick together when pressed in the 



206 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

hand, but will not crumble apart again as do the soils 
with only film moisture. 

Orchardists have relied far too much on the appearance 
of the surface soil as a guide in irrigation, and as a result 
an excess of water has been applied. So long as the free 
water sought a level far below the surface, no disastrous 
results followed, but now with the water-table raised by 
excessive irrigation, over-watering is a more serious mat- 
ter. Many of the seeped areas in our best fruit sections 
are the result of this persistent over-irrigation. 

The orchard should not be irrigated until a careful ex- 
amination of the soil — not only at the surface but to a depth 
of three or four feet — shows that there is need of water. 
One of the most convenient means of making this examina- 
tion is to dig a few holes in different parts of the orchard 
with a post-hole auger or a shovel. If the water-table is 
too near the surface, the orchardist must cultivate more 
and irrigate less, or give frequent light irrigations. Or- 
chards will apparently thrive on land in which the free 
water comes within five feet of the surface. Fruit trees 
really grow well on land when the water-table is nearer 
the surface, if the water was there when the trees were 
planted; roots will not penetrate a saturated soil. But 
if the water-table rises after the trees have rooted deeply, 
it is a different matter, as the lower roots which come in 
contact with the water will be smothered, and the death of 
the tree will result in a short time. 

Nature of the Soil modifies the Practice 

The nature of the soil may determine both the way in 
which the water is applied and the amount that is required. 



Irrigation in Orchards 207 

The system of irrigation well adapted to a sandy soil may 
be a failure with a heavy soil, and the amount of water 
necessary for the orchard on well drained mesa land might 
prove injurious to the orchard on poorly drained bottom 
ground. 

Heavy soils are difficult to irrigate and to keep in good 
physical condition. The general tendency is for the water 
to run the soil particles together, thus causing the soil to 
bake. The heavier soils, composed largely of decomposed 
shale, sometimes become almost impervious to water. 
This difficulty may be overcome, to a certain extent, by 
using deep furrows and placing them far apart. In this 
way one avoids wetting the surface soil, and it is possible 
to till before the bottoms of the furrows bake. The 
ditches may be placed about eight feet apart and should 
be thrown out with a heavy stirring plow. The head of 
water should be small and, in some cases, must be run for 
a considerable length of time. It is doubtful, however, 
whether it ever pays to run water over seventy-two hours 
in the same furrows. We have seen water run thirty days, 
but after the first three days the bottoms and sides of the 
furrows were so well coated with sediment that very little 
of the water escaped from them With the heavy soils 
the water may be run almost any distance. If the rows 
are extra long, they should be started with a large head of 
water, and when it has reached the other end of the orchard, 
the head should be cut down just enough to carry it 
through. The surface of the heavy soils must not be wet, 
unless shaded with some, crop, and this is the purpose of the 
deep ditch and the small head of water. Heavy soils that 
have been plowed must be well settled before an attempt 



Irrigation in Orchards 



209 



is made to water them. Fall-plowed land generally settles 
well during the winter, but land plowed later should be 




Fig. 58. — Sandj^ Soil well Furrowed. Grand Junction, Colorado. 

well worked down with the disc and harrow. One should 
avoid letting these heavy soils get dry, as they take water 
very slowly when once dry and filled with air. A good, 



210 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

heavy, fall irrigation is one of the best ways of wetting such 
land. Figure 57 shows an apple orchard on heavy soil 
well furrowed for irrigation. 

Sandy soils take water freely, and the furrows should 
be closer together and the rows not so long as in the 
heavier soils. In the heavy soils the water moves more 
freely laterally, and in lighter soils the movement is down- 
ward. The longer the rows, the larger should be the head 
of water. The upper end of the orchard is sometimes 
over-watered by trying to run a small head of water 
through long rows in sandy soils. It is better to water 
a few rows well than to try to spread the water over the 
whole orchard the same day. The length of time the water 
is allowed to run will depend entirely on the soil. The 
orchardist must learn to understand his soil and know 
how long it will take to wet it. Provided the free water 
does not come too near the surface, heavy waterings at 
greater intervals are always to be preferred to light and 
frequent irrigations. Figure 58 shows a pear orchard 
on sandy soil well furrowed out for watering. Figure 25 
shows a common mistake of furrowing near the trees only. 
With the sandy soil it is not so important that the water 
be kept off the surface, but flooding should be avoided 
if possible, especially if the ground is bare. 

Frequency of Irrigation 

Soil conditions and the treatment the orchard receives 
between times will determine how often it must be irri- 
gated. Sandy soils, as a rule, require more frequent 
irrigations, especially where they have good drainage. 
Orchards that are sparingly tilled require more frequent 



Irrigation in Orchards 211 

irrigation. As a rule, from two to four summer irriga- 
tions and one late fall irrigation will be sufficient for the 
old orchard. Apple trees may be watered more freely 
than peach trees, and pear trees will stand more water 
than apple trees. 

The orchard that is receiving clean tillage should be 
tilled after each irrigation. Unless the ditches are culti- 
vated in, the bottoms and sides crack and allow the 
ground to dry out quickly. 

Young orchards really do not require a great deal of 
water, especially if they are set on land that has been 
previously irrigated. The second season is the critical 
time in the growth of the young orchard, and unless 
sparingly irrigated and properly matured, it may be 
seriously injured in severe winters. 

Orchards that have been dried out in late summer 
to mature the fruit or the new wood must be irrigated 
in the fall. This is especially important in locahties 
where there is a light winter snowfall. This irrigation 
may be given at any time after frost has touched the 
foliage. 



CHAPTER XIV 

OTHER PHASES OF ORCHARD MANAGEMENT 

Fruit-growing is not always a separate business. 
It is often only one part or phase of one's farming, and 
as such is most likely to be associated with various forms 
of live-stock raising. This hve-stock may also be essential 
to the orcharding itself, to supply the necessary manure. 
We may therefore discuss some phases of stock-raising 
in connection with fruit-growing before we pass to the 
question of varieties and the discussions of marketing. 

The person who engages in fruit-growing without capi- 
tal is likely to ask what he may do for a living while his 
orchards are coming into bearing. To suggest an answer 
is still further to discuss some phases of orchard manage- 
ment; and this question we may here consider. 

LIVE-STOCK ON FRUIT-FARMS 

There was a full crop of apples in 1906 in one of the large 
orchards in Western Colorado. Part of the trees had 
been bearing for fifteen years, and part had just begun to 
bear heavily. In the young orchard 95 per cent of the 
crop graded ^'extras" and '^firsts," Half the apples on 
the older trees were below these grades, being undersized 
and " off color." Another old orchard bearing a low-grade 
fruit was heavily manured with rich barnyard manure, 

212 



Other Phases of Orchard Management 213 

well worked in, and the following year the fruit was as 
good as when the trees first came into bearing. 

Comparatively few fruit-growers in irrigated sections 
are located where manure can be bought, and if their 
trees need this kind of food, animals must be kept to 
produce it. The kind of stock to raise or to feed will 
dapend on the cost of feed and the area of land not in 
trees that adjoins the orchards. 

Horses 

On some fruit-farms it is practicable to use brood mares 
to do all work requiring horse-power. Then colts may 
be raised. Heavy draft-horses are easiest to raise and 
the most profitable when the grower keeps only a few 
and does not make a business of horse-raising. Every 
extra pound above 1600 pounds weight is worth fifty 
cents, and every pound above 1800 pounds weight is 
worth one dollar in a well-built, sound horse, having good 
action. 

The fruit-grower should select mares of good draft 
type weighing 1200 to 1800 pounds each, according to 
the work he has to do, choosing the breed he prefers. 
Regular hard work, if slow and steady, is beneficial to 
mares in foal. Care should be taken to use wide shafts 
and single-trees, and the pregnant mare should not be 
driven fast nor turned quickly. At least half the hay 
should be alfalfa in order to develop the unborn colt. 
Native hay may comprise the remainder, or oat straw or 
corn-fodder. Oats is the best grain, but when working 
hard, the mare may be fed corn or rolled barley. 

The colt should be halter-broken when a week old. 



214 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

and should not be allowed to follow the dam when she is 
at work. It is best to let the colt suckle at the middle 
of each half day as well as at regular mealtimes. If 
the mare is warm, she should be allowed to become 
thoroughly cool before the colt suckles. 

The colt should be encouraged to eat grain early, and 
after he eats well, should be fed all the oats and alfalfa 
hay he will consume clean. It is well to feed some native 
hay, oat, straw, or corn-fodder. Carrots are good for both 
mare and colt. The colt should have ample exercise and 
good shelter, and should be pushed to make a gain every 
day until he reaches full mature weight. A well-fed and 
well-managed colt at one year will weigh one-half as much 
as when fully matured. Well-bred draft-colts have been 
fed on alfalfa and oats to a weight of 900 pounds each 
the day they were one year old. The most serious loss 
usually occurs by letting the gain stop the second winter. 

''Baby Beef' {Calves) 

Feeding for "baby beef" is profitable in fruit-growing 
sections where alfalfa is cheap. With feed close to the 
feed yards, one man can take care of 200 calves. There 
is a good profit in the feeding, and a large supply of manure 
for the orchard. The work is done when labor is lightest 
in the orchard. 

There are two methods: one to market the calves fat 
at the end of the first winter, and the other to "finish" 
them at some time during the second winter. The latter 
plan is most profitable where cheap summer pasture is 
available. With both methods the calves should be 
weaned while in prime condition and still gaining every 



Other Phases of Orchard Management 215 

day, and the feeding should begin as soon as the 
calves are taken from their dams. Before being weaned 
the calves should be vaccinated to protect against black- 
leg. 

The foundation of baby beef production is in feeding 
all the alfalfa hay and roots the calves can be induced to 
eat, and very little grain. The alfalfa should be cut when 
the first few blooms appear and cured, to save the leaves, 
as for this kind of feeding a pound of leaves is worth more 
than four pounds of stems. The roots may be sugar- 
beets, stock-beets, mangels, or ruta-bagas, and should be 
sliced for feeding. Give the calves access to good straw, 
as a little will overcome the too laxative effect of the early 
cut alfalfa. Oat, wheat, and barley hays and corn-fodder 
are good to feed for variety. The calves should have 
good shelter and free access to pure water. The more 
they can be induced to he down, the greater will be the 
gains; and a dry place on which to lie should always be 
ready. Every time that a calf stands up after eating 
because there is snow or mud in the yard, he loses money 
for the feeder. 

If the calves are to be marketed at 14 months, they 
should be fed grain from the time of weaning, starting 
with one pound per head a day and slowly increasing 
to four to six pounds per head daily, feeding only suffi- 
cient grain to keep up a daily gain of two pounds per calf. 
The grain may be either corn, oats, or barley, or a mixture 
of any two or all three of these feeds, and it should be 
crushed. Grain should never be fed alone. Either mix 
it with an equal weight of fine, leafy alfalfa, or else sprinkle 
it on the sliced roots. With this system well-bred beef 



216 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

calves will weigh 700 to 800 pounds at 14 months of age. 
Heifers fatten better than steers. 

If the calves are to be marketed the second winter, 
they should be handled as above through the first winter 
except that no grain should be fed. They should be 
pushed as fast as can be done with hay, fodder, and roots. 
The second summer they should be kept on good pasture 
and put in the feed lots in the fall while in prime con- 
dition. The first 30 to 60 days feed hay and roots, then 
begin with a light feed of grain, slowly increasing until 
February first, when they will be eating 6 to 8 pounds 
per head daily. At this time, if well bred and properly 
managed, they will be ready for the market, and should 
average 1200 pounds each. 

Dairying 

Dairying is especially adapted to high-priced land as, 
if necessary, dairy cows can be kept profitably on a limited 
area and not pastured at all. Manure is valuable in 
proportion to the character of the feed, and as cows 
giving milk need good feeding throughout the year, their 
manure is rich. 

An acre of good alfalfa cut and fed green to cows con- 
fined in a yard will supply ample feed for five good ani- 
mals throughout the summer. A ton of alfalfa hay, 
cut when the first few blooms appear and cured to save 
all the leaves, is equal for milk production to a ton of 
bran and usually costs about one-third as much. 

Fruit-growers deal with high-priced land and high- 
priced labor, and they must be careful to select cows of 
extreme dairy type. They cannot afford to feed and 



Other Phases of Orchard Management 217 

milk cows that use part or most of their feed to put on 
flesh. Under prevaihng conditions in irrigated fruit sec- 
tions, the yearly income from the dairy cow varies from 
$25 to $120, depending largely on the type of cow selected. 
The lower return does not pay expenses, but the higher 
amount gives a large net profit. 

The breed is a matter of indifference, but the nearer 
each individual approaches the extreme dairy type, the 
greater will be the profits from judicious feeding and 
management. In most fruit-growing sections selling milk 
or cream is more profitable than marketing butter. 

Alfalfa should be the basis for milk production. In 
the summer it may be cut daily and fed slightly wilted. 
Alfalfa for hay for dairy cows should be cut when the 
first few blooms appear, cured with as little exposure as 
possible in order to save the leaves, and should have a 
bright green color. A cow of the right type can be fed 
profitably all of this hay she will eat. Early cut alfalfa 
hay is usually too laxative, and this trouble may be over- 
come by allowing the cow to eat all the good clean straw 
she wants. A cow will usually eat 2 or 3 pounds of straw 
daily. 

Fed all the alfalfa she will eat, a cow needs some grain 
rich in starch. Corn, barley, or oats, or a mixture of these, 
is the most profitable, depending on the price. The 
amount of grain to feed varies with the cow. Some cows 
will return a profit on 4 pounds daily; others can profit- 
ably be fed 8 to 10 pounds daily. 

Sugar-beets, stock-beets, carrots, mangels, and cull 
apples may be fed up to 25 pounds per cow daily. With 
most cows, a larger quantity is detrimental. The trim- 



218 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

mings from market-garden products, such as celery and 
cabbage leaves, are relished and save hay. All feed 
should be given after, and not either before or during, 
milking. There is then no danger of tainting the milk. 
The dairy cow needs good shelter and plenty of water 
and salt both summer and winter. Petting and kindness 
will increase both the yield and richness of the milk. 

Hogs 

Hogs are profitable consumers of cull fruit. They are 
often fattened on peaches alone. Apples can be used to 
save at least half the grain. On several farms in irri- 
gated fruit sections, hogs have been fitted for market on 
squash and alfalfa pasture or hay. The squash puts the 
animals in good condition, but gives the flesh an objec- 
tionable yellow color. A ton of sugar-beets fed with grain 
to fattening hogs takes the place of 200 pounds of grain. 

Hogs selected for breeding-stock should belong to pro- 
lific strains, with sows that regularly have six to ten pigs 
at a litter. Any dark-haired breed is satisfactory. The 
intense sunshine in irrigated fruit sections blisters white 
hogs, and they usually do not thrive. Well-built hogs, 
having well-arched backs, well developed in shoulder, 
heart, loin, and ham, and well up on their feet should be 
chosen. 

The hogs should have alfalfa every day in the year — 
pasture in summer, leaves from alfalfa hay in winter. 
It does not pay to grind or cut alfalfa hay for hogs, as the 
woody stems are detrimental. The hogs should have 
dry, warm shelter every night in the year, well ventilated, 
but without drafts. 



Other Phases of Orchard Management 219 

Corn, barley, wheat, and field peas are the grains avail- 
able for fattening. Barley makes a better-flavored pork 
than corn. It should be either rolled or soaked before 
feeding. Good gains are secured from feeding wheat, 
but the meat is tough, and both meat and fat have a dark 
color. Where wheat is the cheapest feed, the hogs 
should be fed the last four to six weeks on corn or barley. 
This will whiten and harden the flesh and give it a better 
flavor. Wheat should be either ground or soaked. 
Field peas make a specially fine-flavored pork. It is 
customary to fatten pigs by letting them pasture the 
unharvested ripe crop; sometimes the ripe peas and vines 
are cut and stacked like hay, and the entire dried product, 
peas and hay, fed to the hogs. An acre of good peas 
will make 400 pounds of gain on hogs when pastured, 
and from 600 to 800 pounds of gain on hogs when harvested 
and fed to them in small pens. 

While suckling the pigs, the sow should be fed liberally 
with milk-producing feeds, such as grain, alfalfa, and roots. 
A limited supply of cull fruit is good, but if given all 
the fruit she will eat, the tendency is seriously to reduce 
the milk flow. A few days before the pigs are to be 
weaned, the sow's feed should be reduced to water and 
alfalfa, and she will become dry without injury to her 
udder. 

The pigs should not be weaned earlier than eight weeks 
of age, and ten weeks is better. It is best to feed them 
three to five times daily when first weaned. In two weeks 
feeding twice daily is sufficient. When the pig reaches 
a weight between 50 and 75 pounds, feed from one-half 
to one pound of grain daily at night, and let him spend 



220 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

the daj^ eating alfalfa, cull fruit, and other available cheap 
roughness. When finishing time arrives, feed twice daily 
all the grain, fruit, roots, and hay he will eat. To produce 
pork profitably, at least half the total weight of the 
finished hog must have been made from rough feed. 

Poultry 

One hundred laying hens can be kept on each acre of 
a full-grown orchard without interfering with the regular 
operations. Four hundred laying hens can be kept on 
each acre of a newly set orchard. An experienced poultry- 
grower can make from one to two dollars net per year per 
hen. 

The hens should be kept in small numbers in cheap, 
portable houses. With the run of the orchard a house 
8 X 10 feet will shelter thirty-five hens and can be built 
for $15 to $25. It can be easily moved by four men or 
by one man and a team. No floor is needed, and it is 
preferable to use muslin in the place of glass for windows. 
The house should be tight on the north, east, and west 
ends. 

The hens should be forced to their full laying capacity, 
and in February and March at least two hundred chicks 
should be hatched for each one hundred hens. All the 
cockerels and half the pullets should be marketed for 
broilers at a weight of IJ^ to 13^2 pounds. Sell all the 
old hens except the best ones in May and early June, 
when the price is highest. The young pullets will begin 
laying in August. 

Many successful poultry-men make wheat half the 
ration for laying hens, and for the other half feed a variety 



Other Phases of Orchard Management 221 

of grains, such as corn, oats, kafir, and barley. A self- 
feeding hopper is kept before the hens filled with dry- 
meat meal. If hens have not been fed the meal, they are 
likely to gorge themselves at first. This can be pre- 
vented by using for a short time a mixture of half-meat 
meal and half-bran. Alfalfa should be fed every day in 
the year. 

MAKING A LIVING WHILE THE TREES ARE COMING INTO 
BEARING 

This is a subject that need not worry any able-bodied 
and willing man, as work is always plentiful in a fruit 
country. Moreover, there are many things that may be 
grown between the rows of young trees which will bring 
good returns. As a rule, the double-cropping of orchards 
should be discouraged for the reason that the trees are 
likely to be neglected or misused and the soil ruined. 
But if due care is exercised, particularly not to over- 
irrigate, crops of various kinds may be grown between 
the rows for several years. When this is done, a strip 
at least five feet wide should be left on either side of the 
tree row for cultivation and irrigation. It should always 
be remembered that the young trees are of first impor- 
tance, and upon their present health and vigor depends the 
future usefulness of the orchard. It would be better 
to lose an entire season's work rather than to stunt the 
trees by an injudicious irrigation. 

Potatoes may be mentioned as a crop well adapted to 
growing in young orchards. It is a staple commodity 
and is often shipped across the continent. But in order 
to do this a community must produce a sufficient quantity 



222 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



to ship in car-load lots. Potatoes thrive best in the lighter 
mesa soils as a rule, but occasionally bottom lands are 
found that are adapted to the crop. Potato land should 
not become hard and puddled, and it should have good 
natural under drainage. In order to be successful under 




Fig. 59. — Cantaloupes Growing in Young Orchard. 

arid conditions, potatoes must be grown in high ridges 
and be given very deep cultivation. 

The cantaloupe is another crop that in some sections 
is grown in young orchards. (See Fig. 59.) 

Most any of the vegetables may be grown, but with all 
such crops the question of markets should be carefully 
considered before any large area is planted. In any 
section there is always something in the way of vege- 



Other Phases of Orchard Management 223 

tables that may be grown at a profit. Many of the towns 
in the fruit districts now have canning factories, and in 
the past it has been difficult for them to secure a suffi- 
cient supply of such things as tomatoes, corn, and beans. 
Many of these vegetables are very easy to grow and with 
good care enormous yields are secured. 

The canning industry is bound to grow, and it provides 
a means of using much fruit that does not ship well. 
But in order to round out the season to advantage as well 
as to supply demands, many vegetables are required. It 
has been difficult to find enough people in the various dis- 
tricts to grow sufficient vegetables to supply the factories. 

We do not like to recommend the growing of small- 
fruits in the orchard for the reason that the trees are so 
often injured by overwatering. A much better plan is 
to set aside an acre or two that may be used exclusively 
for this purpose. There has always been a ready sale 
for small-fruits. 

There are always great possibihties with poultry; and 
a few hogs and a cow or two should find a place on the 
fruit-farm. 

Taking the situation as a whole, it would seem that 
the opportunities for a small-fruit farmer, not only to 
make a Hving, but something of an income as well, while 
his trees are maturing, are encouraging. In fact, one does 
not need to ride far through the fruit districts in order 
to find a number of men who are accomplishing this. 

If one is endowed with sufficient strength to warrant 
his attempting farm work at all, he need have no fear 
of being able to make a comfortable living, at least, while 
his trees are coming to the bearing age. 



CHAPTER XV 

VARIETIES 

The question of choice of varieties is, fortunately, 
quickly answered. When orchards were first being 
planted, those kinds that were favorites in the eastern 
homes were given preference. When it was found that 
fruit could be grown at all, many of the early orchardists, 
wishing to show what could be done, planted many 
varieties. Thus it happened that the older orchards 
often contained many varieties, most of which have not 
proved to be well adapted to arid conditions. 

So long as there were local markets, the kind of fruit 
mattered little. But when it became necessary to com- 
pete in the markets of the world, conditions were changed. 
Home markets were then out of the question except in 
a limited way; and because of the great distance, car- 
load lots were the units of shipment. Buyers could not 
afford to pay freight on anything but the best, and in 
order to be successful in the markets, they must have large 
quantities of a certain kind. They want to know, for 
instance, how many cars of fancy Jonathan a certain as- 
sociation or dealer can furnish. Such information gives 
a basis upon which a stable business may be conducted. 
The buyers soon found that a few varieties were in 
greatest demand, and naturally calls came to the growers 
for an increasing supply. 

Thus it is that the consumers in distant states have 

224 



226 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

largely determined what varieties we shall grow. For 
these reasons the number of varieties of leading com- 
mercial apples has been reduced to five or six, and of 
peaches to three or four. 

When the question of varieties for planting arises, it 
is always best to consult with the men who have charge 
of the marketing, as they are in position to know the kinds 
that are in most demand. 

The pleasure of testing new fruits would best be in- 
dulged in an amateur way. New kinds are at a disad- 
vantage on the market as they cannot ordinarily be 
furnished in quantity. It is best for a locality to develop 
a reputation on a few varieties and adhere closely to them. 
Eastern people are now fairly familiar with the Western 
Jonathan and Winesap, and the Esopus (Spitzenburg) 
and Newtown Pippins of the Northwest. 

Will it pay to plant other kinds on soils that will grow 
the foregoing varieties to perfection and trust to the un- 
certain public taste to create a demand? We think it is 
a better plan to grow the very best Jonathans or Wine- 
saps and then learn to pack them in the very best way; 
or, if these varieties are not adapted to the soil, the grower 
may specialize on one or two of the other well-known 
varieties that will be certain to succeed. 

In considering the list of apples that are grown in the 
mountain region, we find that the varieties that do best 
in Missouri, Kansas, and other states in the same latitude 
have been most grown here in spite of the higher alti- 
tude. These include such varieties as Winesap, Jonathan, 
Grimes, White Pearmain, Rome (Beauty), Willow Twig, 
Ralls, and the Ben Davis family. All of these varieties 



Varieties 227 

reach their highest development in the arid country if 
^ the soil is adaptable; otherwise they are likely to be shy 
\ bearers, the fruit undersized, or lacking in color. The 
Esopus (Spitzenburg) and Newtown Pippin are apparent 
exceptions to this rule, but as yet they are successfully 
grown only in the vicinity of the Cascade Mountains 
in the states of Oregon and Washington. 

Ben Davis should be left for the ordinary orchardist, 
although it must be said that this much-maligned apple 
has probably made more money for our growers than 
any other one variety. But with the increasing cost of 
box material and of labor it is doubtful whether we can 
now afford to plant it, for it is a cheap apple. 

Adaptation of Varieties to Soils 

The adaptation of varieties to soils is a question of much 
importance and one to which very little attention has been 
given. Most varieties will grow and bear some fruit 
on nearly all soils, but when we study the results, we 
find that there is a marked difference in behavior of a 
certain variety in the same locality. The effect of soil 
on a product is best illustrated with the potato. This 
crop is a failure in many parts of the inter-mountain 
country, but paying crops may be grown in any locality, 
if what we know as potato soil can be found in which to 
grow them. The experienced farmer does not attempt 
to grow potatoes commercially unless he knows that he 
has "potato land." 

A study of the adaptation of varieties to soils indicates 
that it is largely a question of the character of growth 
of the variety. In the case of apples most varieties 



228 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

may be classed, for this purpose, under the two general 
heads of vigorous-growing and weak-growing kinds. 
Most varieties will grow more vigorously, as a rule, in 
the heavy soils than in the lighter ones. The strong- 
growing kinds are likely to be shy bearers of poorly colored 
fruit when planted on heavy soil, as the energies of the 
tree are largely used in growth. On the other hand, 
varieties that are incHned to overbear on the light soils 
will make more growth on heavy soils, and consequently 
they will produce less fruit, but of a better size. 

The proper coloring of the fruit is an important factor, 
not to be overlooked. Not all of the slow-growing kinds 
will bear highly colored fruit when grown on heavy land. 
These varieties that are late in ripening are specially 
liable to be poorly colored. High color usually indicates 
high quality for the variety, no matter where the fruit 
is grown. There are, no doubt, exceptions to this state- 
ment, but ordinarily it may be adopted as a rule, notwith- 
standing the strenuous objections to the contrary made 
by our eastern contemporaries. 

Adaptation of the Standard Varieties of Apples 

The following discussion of the behavior of varieties, 
drawn from the experience of growers and from personal 
observation, will illustrate the relation of varieties of 
apples to soil. 

The Jonathan does best on a rich mesa soil; that is, 
bears fruit of good size, color, and quality. More highly 
colored apples, but of smaller size, are produced on the 
lighter soils. It succeeds nearly as well on the sandy 
bottom lands, but does not color as well on heavy land. 



Varieties 229 

The Grimes and White Pearmain are comparable in their 
behavior. The Grimes should almost be classed with 
the heavy growers, but neither it nor the White Pearmain 
bears well or produces fruit of the best color on the heavier 
soils. Probably the main reason why the latter variety 
is ever reported from eastern .markets as being ''off in 
flavor" is because many of them are grown on poor, heavy 
soils and are not properly matured. 

The Winesap is not a vigorous grower and is inclined 
to overbear, as well as to produce fruit of undersize when 
the trees reach maturity. It develops its best color, 
however, on rich, well-drained soils. The . tendency to 
overproduction and weak growth so noticeable on light 
soils may be counteracted to some extent by systematic 
pruning and thinning. 

The Missouri (Pippin) is in the same class with the 
Winesap, being, perhaps, the best example we have of a 
slow-growing, overproductive, and consequently a short- 
lived tree. It does best on the heavier soils. 

Rome (Beauty) attains more nearly to perfection on 
a medium soil, that is, land neither too light nor too heavy. 
The land should be well drained and fertile. The fruit 
colors poorly on heavy soils, and the tree makes but little 
better growth. The fruit is liable to be ''off color," 
anyway, unless the fall weather is suitable for ripening. 
Therefore, if Rome is to remain a standard variety, it 
should be planted only on suitable soil. The tree makes 
an indifferent, upright growth, with an ill-shapen trunk, 
particularly when young. It is more satisfactory when 
top-worked on a vigorous, spreading variety, as the 
Northern Spy. 



230 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



The Newtown Pippins, both Green and Yellow, are very 
susceptible to soil properties, and the areas in which they 
are at all satisfactory are very limited. For this reason 
they are not much grown outside of favored localities in 




Fig. 61. — A Newtown Pippin Orchard. North Yakima, Washington. 



Washington and Oregon (Figs. 60, 61), yet they have been 
known to grow and bear well on a rocky hillside and 
almost refuse to bear on heavy or medium heavy lands. 
The Ben Davis group, which includes Gano and Black 
Ben Davis, is cosmopoHtan in its adaptation, as it sue- 



Varieties 



231 



oeeds fairly well on all sorts of soils where apple trees will 
grow at all. All the kinds bear well on heavy soils and 
make satisfactory growth on the hghter lands. The 
trees need more pruning in the latter case to produce 
more growth, thus preventing the production of an over- 











■;; 








■h 


Mi 


fc_^ 


jj 








In 


■ 



Fig. 62. — An Esopus (Spitzenburg) Orchard, Hood River, Oregon. 

load of small apples. Higher-colored fruit may usually 
be expected, however, on the hghter soils. 

The Arkansas, commonly and improperly known as 
Mammoth Black Twig, usually overgrows and is non- 
productive on heavy soils, though it is of the Winesap 
type. It does well on light mesa soils, where the trees 
are usually of good size and productive. The fruit is also 
of good size, uniform, and of good color. 



232 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

Arkansas Black has not been very satisfactory as a rule. 
It does best on light mesa soils. It is also of the Winesap 
type of fruit and a vigorous grower. 

The Spitzenburg does well on medium soils, but is 
very susceptible to blight; consequently it is but little 
grown except in the Cascade Mountains, where it finds 
a congenial home (Fig. 62). 

Winter Banana is a weak grower ordinarily on heavy 
soils, but makes a good growth on rich lands if the drainage 
is good. Where the conditions are adaptable, the fruit is 
beautiful and of high, quality. These characters are not 
well brought out when grown on heavy land. This 
variety is also very susceptible to blight. 

Ralls makes good growth on rich mesa soils, and the 
fruit colors well. The fruit is borne in clusters, and there- 
fore the trees are very likely to overbear. It makes a 
strong growth on heavy lands, and the fruit is often poorly 
colored. This variety often produces fruit when others 
fail, on account of the lateness of the blossoming period. 

Mcintosh is rather a medium to strong grower, has a 
fruiting-habit something like White Winter Pearmain, 
long and strong limbs with short spurs. It is somewhat 
inclined to bear in clusters, and on alternate years, if not 
thinned, often so bunchy that part of the fruits are pushed 
off before the picking season. The fruit is inclined to drop 
if not picked on time. It would be called a prohfic 
variety adapted to medium to strong soil. It is particu- 
larly adapted to Montana conditions, where it becomes 
one of the finest winter apples (Fig. 63). 



234 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

Choice of Varieties 

In summing up this list of varieties we find that there are 
seven that do best on rich, medium mesa soils or their 
equivalent. These are: Ben Davis, Gano, Grimes, Jona- 
than, Rome, White Pearmain, Winesap, and Winter Ba- 
nana. The Missouri is distinctly a variety for heavy land, 
and the Arkansas as distinctly a variety for light land, 
while Ben Davis and Gano may be fairly successful on 
any orchard land. 

What, then, is the grower to plant who is not the possessor 
of rich loamy soil? He should, first of all, put his land 
in the best possible condition by plowing under green- 
manures, and then strive to maintain it by judicious use 
of tillage and shade-crops. Personally we would select, 
for the commercial orchard, from the following varieties, 
according to the character of soil : Gano, Grimes, Jonathan, 
Rome, and Winesap. Oregon and Washington growers 
will of course include Newtown Pippin and Esopus (Spit- 
zenburg), and Montana growers the Mcintosh. 

Local markets and express shipments are important 
factors in apple marketing in the lesser fruit districts. 
Early apples are therefore profitable and much grown. 
The commoner early kinds are the (Duchess of) Oldenburg, 
Haas, Plumb Cider, Utter, and Wealthy. 

For the many localities in the higher altitudes, where 
apples are grown only for home uses, the following varie- 
ties have proved the most hardy : (Duchess of) Oldenburg, 
Northwestern Greening, Wealthy, Whitney No. 20, Crab, 
and Yellow Transparent. 



Varieties 235 

Description of Varieties of Apples 

Arkansas. — Commonly but erroneously called Mammoth 
Black Twig. This variety very closely resembles the Paragon, 
but it is known to have had a separate origin. Tree rather large, 
vigorous, somewhat spreading; fruit large, uniform, roundish, in- 
clined to conic, somewhat ribbed, uniform in shape; skin becom- 
ing deep yellow, largely overspread with deep dull red, obscurely 
striped with darker red; flesh tinged with yellow, very firm, 
moderately juicy, subacid, crisp, good. Season December to May. 

Arkansas Black. — Tree moderately vigorous, somewhat spread- 
ing. Fruit medium to large in size, nearly round; skin yellow, 
but usually pretty much covered with a lively red which becomes 
almost black on the exposed side; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, sub- 
acid, good to very good. December to April. This variety has 
not been productive, as a rule. 

Ben Davis. — Too well known to need a description. The 
fruit in the inter-mountain region is beautiful when well grown, 
of good size and a better quality than when grown in many other 
regions. The Gano is largely replacing the Ben Davis, as it has 
all its characteristics, with better size and color, and perhaps 
better quality. The tree has been one of the first to be affected 
by arsenical poisoning. The buds are very susceptible to late 
spring frost, and the fruit is easily rusted by spray mixtures. 

Esopus (Spitzenhurg) . — Tree moderately vigorous, somewhat 
spreading. Fruit should average large, uniform, roundish conic, 
somewhat ribbed; skin tough, waxy, deep yellow, usually covered 
with bright dark red; flesh tinged with yellow, firm, crisp, tender, 
juicy, aromatic, very good to best. Season November to March 
or later in cold storage. The red apple par excellence of Washing- 
ton and Oregon. Has not come into prominence outside of those 
states. 

Gano. — An improved Ben Da\as, and is largely replacing that 
variety. Tree moderately vigorous, upright, spreading, some- 
what inclined to droop. Fruit large, form roundish, conic, uni- 
form in size and shape; flesh whitish, tinged with yellow, firm, 
juicy, mild subacid, nearly good in quality. Season extending 
from December to May. 



236 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

Grimes. — Tree moderately vigorous, upright, spreading, in- 
clined to droop. Fruit medium to large; form roundish oblong, 
flattened at the ends; skin tough, clear, deep yellow; flesh yellow, 
very firm, tender, crisp, juicy, subacid, rich aromatic, very good 
to best. Season November to February. This variety has been 
rated as the type of excellence in apples. It is one of the hand- 
somest yellow apples, and is proving to be a reliable market 
variety. 

Haas. — Tree large, very vigorous, becoming spreading or 
roundish with age. Fruit large; form oblate, somewhat ribbed; 
skin thin, yellow, washed and nearly covered with deep bright 
red with splashes of carmine ; flesh white, often stained with red, 
firm, juicy, subacid, fair in quality. Season October to early 
winter. 

Jonathan. — Tree medium in size, moderately vigorous, roundish, 
somewhat spreading and drooping with age. Fruit medium to 
large (should average large with good culture), roundish conic, 
uniform in shape; skin thin, tough, bright yellow, usually over- 
laid with lively dark red which usually deepens to purplish on 
the sunny side; flesh whitish to yellow sometimes tinged with 
red, firm, crisp, juicy, aromatic, sprightly, subacid, very good to 
best. Season November to January. This is one of the best com- 
mercial apples. Tree usually does best when top-worked on a 
more vigorous growing kind. This variety is also very susceptible 
to arsenical poisoning. 

Mcintosh. — Tree vigorous, roundish, somewhat spreading. 
Fruit large, roundish oblate, slightly ribbed; skin thin, tender, 
light yellow, mostly covered with bright red and striped with 
carmine; flesh white, sometimes veined with red, firm, crisp, 
tender, very juicy, sprightly subacid, aromatic, very good to 
best, especially for dessert. Season October to December, or 
later in storage. Succeeds especially well in the valleys of Mon- 
tana. Many specimens become dark red in this climate; thin 
lilac bloom. 

Missouri (Pippin). — Tree only moderately vigorous, with long, 
slender, drooping branches. Fruit medium in size, roundish; skin 
thick, tough, glossy, pale greenish overspread with bright red 



Varieties 237 

and striped with purplish red; flesh tinged with yellow, firm, not 
very juicy, subacid, fair to good in quality. Season October to 
January or later. Highly colored specimens are nearly solid red, 

Oldenburg (Duchess of Oldenburg). — Tree medium in size, 
roundish. Fruit large, uniform, roundish oblate; skin thick, ten- 
der, greenish yellow, almost covered with regular splashes and 
stripes of bright red mottled and shaded with crimson; flesh 
tinged with yellow, rather firm, crisp, tender, Juicy, sprightly sub- 
acid, aromatic, very good for culinary purposes. Season late 
August and September. 

Plumb Cider. — Tree fairly vigorous, medium, upright. Fruit 
medium to large, roundish, slightly conic; skin yellowish, shaded 
with pale red and striped with brighter red; flesh yellow, firm, 
fine, juicy, subacid, good. Season October to January. 

Rome (Beauty). — Tree fairly vigorous, but makes poor growth 
when young, upright. Fruit large to very large, uniform in shape, 
roundish, oblate, somewhat conic, cylindrical; skin thick, tough, 
yellowish or greenish, and in well-colored specimens should be 
almost solid red on the exposed side; flesh nearly white, firm, 
crisp, juicy, mild subacid, quality good. Season November to 
April or May. Should be top-worked on a vigorous-growing kind 
for best results. Blooms late, and so often escapes frost. 

Utter. — Tree vigorous, roundish to upright, healthy, hardy. 
Fruit medium to large, roundish oblate; skin orange-red and 
streaked with bright carmine; flesh whitish, tinged with yellow, 
somewhat coarse, crisp, tender, juicy, mild subacid, good. Season 
October to December. Some fruits show little or no red, but on 
highly colored specimens the prevailing color is red. 

Wealthy. — Tree of medium size, moderately vigorous, with 
curving branches, spreading and somewhat open. Fruit medium 
to large, roundish conic, slightly flattened at the base; skin thin, 
tough, pale yellow, blushed and marked with narrow stripes and 
splashes of red deepening in highly colored specimens to nearly 
solid red; flesh whitish, sometimes stained with red, crisp, tender, 
very juicy, subacid, sprightly, good to very good. Season 
October to January. 

White Pearmain. — Tree vigorous, spreading. Fruit medium 



238 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

to large, roundish ovate to conic, somewhat ribbed; skin tough, 
slightly waxy, pale yellow with a decided blush if well grown; 
flesh slightly tinged with yellow, firm, fine-grained, crisp, tender, 
juicy, mild subacid, aromatic, very good to best. Season Decem- 
ber to March. It does not attain such quality on the heavier or 
poorer soils. 

Winesap. — Tree medium in size, spreading, straggling, and 
inclined to droop. Fruit medium in size, regular, roundish, 
slightly conic; skin tough, glossy, bright deep red over a distinctly 
yellow ground color; flesh tinged with yellow, veins sometimes 
red, firm, crisp, very juicy, slightly subacid, good to very good. 
Season December to May. Usually does best when top-worked 
on a stronger growing kind. 

Winter Banana. — Tree medium in size, spreading, somewhat 
inclined to droop. Fruit large, form roundish conic, somewhat 
ribbed; skin smooth, tough, waxy, bright pale yellow, thin, and 
when at its best has a dark pinkish red blush; flesh tinged with 
yellow, moderately firm, crisp, tender, juicy, mild subacid, aro- 
matic, good to very good. Season November to February. This 
variety was introduced in 1890, and its place as a market fruit 
has not yet been determined. However, its susceptibility to 
blight will probably prevent its being planted extensively. 

Yellow Newtown (Pippin). — Tree vigorous, roundish upright. 
Fruit large, roundish oblate, somewhat ribbed; skin rather tough, 
bright yellow, with a distinct blush; flesh yellowish, firm, crisp, 
tender, juicy, sprightly subacid, aromatic; quality best. Season 
February to May or later in cold storage. This variety is very 
susceptible to soil conditions, and thus far it has found congenial 
surroundings only in the Cascade regions in the states of Oregon 
and Washington. The Green Newtown differs from the Yellow 
principally in color. 

Apricots 

The apricots are not quite so adaptable to soils as are 
the peaches. They do best on rich red land. Just why so 
excellent a fruit and ripening so early in the season should 



Varieties 239 

not have a greater demand is difficult to explain. How- 
ever, there is a growing demand, and plantings are being 
increased. 

Early Montgamet. — Tree vigorous, spreading, and needs severe 
pruning, hardy and very productive. Fruit Jarge; skin orange- 
yellow, reddened on sunny side; flesh pale salmon color; quality 
fair; freestone. Season just after New Castle. 

Moorpark. — Tree large and vigorous. Fruit large, uniform, 
nearly round; skin orange color with a deep orange -red cheek; 
flesh bright yellowish orange color, firm, juicy, with a rich, high 
flavor; quality good; freestone. Season August 1 at Palisade, 
Colorado: the same at Nampa, Idaho. Has proved to be a shy 
bearer and to ripen unevenly in some localities. 

New Castle. — Tree upright, vigorous. Fruit medium size, 
roundish; skin rich golden yellow, with bright red cheek; free- 
stone; quality good. Season the last week in June at Palisade, 
Colorado. Early July at Brigham City, Utah. 

Royal. — Tree upright, moderately vigorous. Fruit of large 
size, roundish, somewhat compressed; skin dull yellow, with 
orange cheek and a faint blush; flesh light orange color, firm but 
juicy, vinous flavor; quality good; freestone. Season of Alex- 
ander peach, about August 20. One of the leading varieties for 
canning and drying. 

Cherries 

As has been mentioned, the Esopus (Spitzenburg) and 
the Newtown apples find congenial conditions in the Cas- 
cade Mountains. The same is true of cherries. In fact, 
we know of no place where this fruit reaches the degree of 
perfection that it does in the valleys of Oregon and Wash- 
ington (Fig. 78). It does not appear at present that any 
locality in the inter-mountain country can hope to produce 
cherries equaling those that are grown in these two states 
where the atmosphere is uniformly much more humid. 



240 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

However, this does not mean that cherries cannot be 
produced at a profit outside of those locahties. The fact 
is that this crop is growing in importance in most localities, 
and plantings are being rapidly extended. 

Of all fruits the cherry must have a dry soil. It thrives 
best in rich loamy land. When irrigating the cherry 
orchard, the rule should be to give it only enough water to 
keep the trees in good condition, and no more. The sweet- 
cherries are nearly as susceptible to cold as the peach, 
while the sour kinds are about as hardy as the red plums, 
and the intending planter should select his varieties 
accordingly. 

The large sweet varieties, as the Lewelling and the 
Napoleon, have done best in the higher altitudes. This 
is probably due to the greater annual precipitation and 
the porous, well-drained soil commonly occurring in such 
localities. 

The sweet cherries have the reputation of being diffi- 
cult to transplant, and many persons have experienced 
difficulty in securing a good stand. Two factors enter 
into this difficulty, the more important one being that if 
the buds have started before the trees are planted, it is al- 
most impossible to make the trees live. Since our nursery 
stock is mostly shipped in from other states, it is not to be 
wondered at that the buds swell to a certain extent before 
the trees can be planted. The second point to be con- 
sidered in planting cherry trees is that they do not re- 
quire, and will not withstand, as much water as many 
other fruits. We think that these two factors will account 
for many of the failures in securing a good stand of cherry 
trees. 



Varieties 241 

Cherries are divided into two distinct groups, the tall, 
upright-growing kinds, bearing sweet and more or less 
heart-shaped fruit; and the smaller round-headed trees, 
bearing round, sour cherries. 

The sweet cherries were formerly divided into four 
groups as follows : Mazzards, inferior seedlings, very large 
trees ; Hearts, the soft sweet cherries, either light- or dark- 
colored; ^igarreaus, the firm-fleshed, sweet cherries; 
Dukes, light-colored, somewhat acid flesh, although borne 
on the upright class of trees. These groups have now 
become so thoroughly mixed by crossing that there is httle 
use of trying to separate the varieties into the various 
classes. 

The sour cherries were also separated into two classes, 
the Amarelles and the Morellos. 

We have selected only a few of the many varieties for 
description, — those that at present are the more profit- 
able market kinds; and the descriptions follow. 

Lewelling {Black Republican). — Tree moderately vigorous for 
the class. Fruit large, shining black; flesh solid and firm; quality 
good. One of the best, for long-distance shipments. Season late. 

Napoleon (Royal Ann). — Tree vigorous. Fruit' large, heart- 
shaped, pale yellow with bright red cheek; flesh very firm, juicy, 
sweet. One of the best market varieties when well grown, as 
well as the leading sweet cherry, for canning. Season June 20 
at Grand Junction, Colorado, also at Brigham City, Utah; July 1 
at Nampa, Idaho. 

Royal Duke. — Tree upright, vigorous. Fruit very large, 
roundish; skin dark red; flesh reddish, tender, juicy; quality 
good. Season medium early. 

Windsor. — Tree vigorous, hardy, and prolific; fruit of good 
size, but not as large as Lewelling, heart-shaped; skin very dark 
red; flesh very firm and of good quality. Season about the same 



242 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

as Napoleon. Will withstand frost and neglect better than most 
cherries. 

Sixteen to One. — A hardy sweet cherry, and peculiar because 
it ripens its fruit over a long period. It is being planted to some 
extent as a market variety, but we think that it will prove to be 
an amateur fruit only. Originated on the farm of E. J. Mathews 
at Paonia, Colorado, as a chance seedling. 

Bing and Lambert are two of the newer dark red, sweet cherries 
that are being extensively planted in the Northwest. Both 
varieties are very large, and excellent for market as grown in the 
coast states. Both varieties are being planted in the inter- 
mountain country proper, but it will be several years before we 
will know whether they will be adapted to our conditions. 

Montmorency Ordinaire is perhaps the best sour cherry. The 
tree is vigorous, hardy, and productive. Fruit of good size, firm; 
skin and flesh light red, with light- colored Juice, less tart than 
most sour kinds and makes a good appearance when canned; 
quality good. Distinctly a canner's cherry and an excellent 
market variety. Season late June and early July on the western 
slope of Colorado, the Cache Valley, Utah, and at Nampa, Idaho; 
July 10 to 15 in the colder districts where sweet cherries do not 
succeed. 

English Morello. — This variety has been more extensively 
planted than any other sour cherry, but we think that the Mont- 
morency will largely take its place in the future. Tree smaller 
than Montmorency, productive. Fruit of good size, very dark 
red and very acid. Season, middle of July to August 1 on the 
western slope of Colorado; somewhat earlier at Brigham City, 
Utah; July 15 to 20 at Nampa, Idaho; August 1 in the colder 
districts. 

Peaches 

Peaches are nearly as indifferent to soil conditions as is 
the Ben Davis apple. To be sure, they respond to good 
land, but the productiveness and the quality of the fruit 
seem to be about the same in any soil where the trees are 
in a vigorous, healthy condition. This is assuming, of 



Varieties 243 

course, that the relative susceptibihty to late spring frosts 
of different locations is not taken into account. 

As with other fruits, but few varieties should be grown 
for market. The one variety for this purpose, above all 
Others, in this section, is the Elberta. The reasons for the 
Elberta's supremacy as a market peach are: that it en- 
dures long shipments well; it is of large size and handsome 
iA appearance; and its season is when there is the least 
competition from other states. 

A. comparatively few early and a few late varieties are 
grown to extend the season, and there is also sale at high 
prices for a limited amount of the very early and for the 
very late kinds. The planter, however, should be sure of 
the season of his locality before planting the later kinds. 

Champion. — Tree vigorous, spreading. Fruit medium to 
large, roundish; skin white, with a deep red blush; flesh white, 
firm, juicy; quality good; freestone. Season just before Elberta. 

Elberta. — Tree strong, vigorous grower, tree inclined to thin 
the fruit itself; foliage dark green. Fruit large, roundish oval, 
with a well-marked suture; skin lemon-yellow, with a blush on' 
the sunny side; flesh pale yellow, tender, juicy; quality good. 
A good shipper and can be gathered before it is fully ripe. Season 
medium late; September 25 at Palisade, Colorado; September 5 
at Brigham City, Utah; last of August at Nampa, Idaho. 

Globe. — Tree vigorous and symmetrical. Fruit very large, 
globular; skin lemon-yellow, with a mottled red cheek; flesh 
yellow, deep red at the pit; quality good, rich, and juicy; free- 
stone. Season ten days later than Elberta or about October 5 at 
Palisade, Colorado, somewhat earlier at Brigham City, Utah*. 

Orange Cling. — Tree vigorous, tall, somewhat spreading. 
Fruit large, nearly round; skin orange-yellow, with red cheek; 
flesh yellow, firm, juicy, rich; quality very good; clingstone. 
Season about with Globe or a few days later. 

Triumph. — Tree strong grower, medium spreading, buds 



244 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

hardy during severe winter. Fruit large, round; skin yellow, well 
overlaid with red where exposed; flesh deep yellow, juicy, good, 
semi-cling. Season August 10 at Palisade, Colorado; August 5 
at Brigham City, Utah; the same at Nampa, Idaho. The best 
early, yellow-fleshed variety for this section. 

Pears 

The pear is the one tree-fruit of the inter-mountaia 
country of which it is depressing to write, because of tke 
devastations of the fire-bhght. Ten years ago the plantiag 
of pears was being extended rapidly, but about that time 
bhght appeared, and a large number of acres of pear trees 
were destroyed in the succeeding four years. In some 
locahties where there were formerly hundreds of acres of 
fine orchards, almost none are standing to-day. Only one 
locality remains, in Colorado, — the country tributary to 
Grand Junction, — where pear-growing is still profitable. 
And even here blight is doing great damage every year, so 
it would seem to be only a question of time when these 
famous orchards will be things of the past. This experi- 
ence has been common to most of the older fruit-growing 
sections of the inter-mountain states. 

In the light of such experience the writers cannot en- 
courage the planting of pear orchards. And when we con- 
sider the menace that even one blighted pear tree is to 
large areas of apple orchards, we cannot but think that the 
interest of a very large percentage of our fruit-growers 
would be best served if no pear trees were grown. 

Aside from the question of blight the pear is one of the 
easiest fruits to grow. It thrives in a great variety of soils, 
if fertility is not lacking, but perhaps does best in a mod- 
erately heavy soil. 



Varieties 245 

Anjou. — Tree vigorous, upright, productive. Fruit large, 
obtuse pyriform; stem short, fleshy, set in a russeted cavity; 
skin greenish yellow, sprinkled with russet, dull red blush; flesh 
whitish, buttery, juicy with a rich vinous flavor; quality good. 
Season about September 15 at Grand Junction, Colorado; the 
same at Brigham City, Utah, and at Nampa, Idaho. Will often 
keep until the holidays. Liable to be a shy bearer unless severely 
pruned. 

Bartlett. — Tree vigorous, erect. Fruit large, obtuse pyriform; 
stem long, stout, cavity shallow; skin clear, yellow, often with 
reddish blush; flesh whitish, fine-grained, tender, and buttery; 
fine flavor; quality good. Season about August 25 at Grand 
Junction, Colorado. A few days earlier at Brigham City, Utah; 
September 1 at Nampa, Idaho. One of the best market pears, 
but very susceptible to blight. 

Lawrence. — Tree moderate grower, upright. Fruit medium 
size, pyriform; stalk short, set in shallow basin; skin light yellow, 
with many small dots; flesh whitish, buttery, aromatic; quality 
good. Season about September 15 at Grand Junction, Colorado, 
at Brigham City, Utah, aJnd at Nampa, Idaho; will keep until 
December. 

Mount Vernon. — Tree upright and vigorous. Fruit medium 
in size, obovate, irregular; stalk short, but slightly sunken; skin 
dull russet, with a red cheek; flesh greenish white, a little coarse, 
rich, vinous; quality good. Season, October 4 at Grand Junc- 
tion, Colorado; the latter part of September at Brigham City, 
Utah; October 25 at Nampa, Idaho. 

Seckel. — Tree rather a slow grower, but vigorous, upright. 
Fruit small, obovate; stalk short, cavity small; skin brownish 
green, turning to yellowish brown, with russet-red cheek; flesh 
whitish, fine-grained, melting, rich, sweet; quality very good. 
Resists blight better than most varieties and sells fairly well in 
half boxes. Season September 1 at Grand Junction, Colorado; 
latter part of August at Brigham City, Utah, and at Nampa, 
Idaho. 

Winter Nelis. — Tree rather straggling, with slender branches. 
Fruit medium size; stalk moderately long, usually bent; cavity 



246 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



narrow; skin yellowish green, much russeted; flesh yellowish, 
fine-grained, buttery, sweet; quality good. It is picked just 
before frost and will keep until December. 





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Fig. 64. — An Idaho Prune Orchard. Boise, Idaho. 

Plums 

Plums do well on a variety of soils, but thrive best when 
planted on land of good tilth and of a fair degree of fer- 
tility. For the sake of convenience we may make two 



Varieties 247 

classes of plums; those adapted to conditions in which 
peaches thrive, and those that must withstand a more 
rigorous climate. Of the former class numbers of varie- 
ties may be grown successfully, but a few varieties grown in 
quantity are always better than many, so that only a few 
of the best ones will be considered. 

Plums have not been very profitable for long-distance 
shipments, and the making of prunes has not become an 
important industry throughout the inter-mountain region. 
Localities in Western Idaho have been producing prunes 
for a number of years, and large orchards have been planted 
(Fig. 64). Oregon and Washington also produce many 
prunes, but these states are hardly to be considered 
within our range. Prunes of excellent quality can be 
produced in any locality in the region where peaches 
mature, but it is generally held that other lines of 
orcharding pay better, and there is certainly less danger 
of overproduction. 

Abundance. — Tree upright, vigorous, a prolific bearer. Fruit 
large, oblong, tapering to a point; stem rather short, suture 
shallow; skin yellow, but mostly overlaid with bright red; quality 
good. Season early. A Japanese variety; blossoms early in com- 
mon with its class, and is therefore especially liable to injury by 
late spring frosts. 

Bradshaw. — Tree vigorous and attains large size. Fruit large, 
obovate, cavity shallow, usually with a ring about the stem; 
stem about an inch long; suture shallow; color dark purplish 
red, with blue bloom; flesh greenish yellow; stone rather small, 
nearly free; sweet, quality good. Season September 1 at Delta, 
Colorado; August 20 at Brigham City, Utah; September 10 at 
Nampa, Idaho. 

Italian Prune (Fellenherg). — Tree moderately vigorous, spread- 
ing. Fruit of decided prune-shape, medium to large in size; color 



248 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

dark blue with blue bloom; flesh greenish yellow; freestone; 
quality very good, sweet. Season about with Elberta peach. 

Tragedy Prune. — Tree moderately vigorous, upright. Fruit 
medium size, prune-shaped, suture deep; stem short; skin dark 
purple with blue bloom; flesh firm, yellow; stone large, cling; 
quality good. Season early. This variety is being planted, to 
some extent, on account of its early ripening, its season at Grand 
Junction being the latter part of June. 

Satsuma. — Tree upright. Fruit large; round conical, cavity 
deep and abrupt; stem short and stout; suture nearly obsolete; 
color dark, bright' red, with light bloom; flesh dark red, firm; 
cling; flavor rather acid, good. Season medium to late. Must 
be planted with other varieties which blossom at the same time 
in order to insure uniform crops of fruit. Not as hardy as some 
other Japanese kinds. 

The second class is composed almost wholly of the culti- 
vated varieties of the native red plums, with a very few 
of the hardier Domesticas. The red plums have been 
profitable in the colder districts, where they usually find 
ready sale in near-by markets. When consumers are able 
to overcome their prejudices and become accustomed to 
these fruits, they find that the better red plums are su- 
perior in flavor, and that they are especially adapted to the 
making of preserves, jellies, and marmalades. 

. American Eagle. — Tree a good grower for the class, produc- 
tive. Fruit large, oval; suture a faint line; stem medium; ca^dty 
abrupt; color yellow, mostly overlaid with dark crimson, with 
thick blue bloom; flesh firm, yellow; stone large, cling; quality 
good. Season medium. 

De Soto. — Tree not very vigorous and inclined to overbear. 
Fruit medium in size, oval; suture a line; stem rather long; color 
orange, mostly overlaid with crimson; bloom blue; flesh yellow, 
firm; stone oval, cling; quality very good. Season medium. 

Forest Garden. — Tree a good grower for the class, productive. 



Varieties 249 

Fruit large, nearly round, suture obscure; cavity shallow; color 
orange, mostly overlaid with dark red; bloom thin, blue; flesh 
yellow, sometimes red around the stone; stone roundish, cling; 
quality very good. Season medium. 

Wolf. — Tree vigorous, productive. Fruit oval, medium to 
large, suture a faint line, color orange overlaid with crimson; 
bloom bluish; skin tough; flesh yellow; freestone; quality good. 
Season medium early. 

Arctic (Moor). — Tree vigorous, somewhat spreading. Fruit 
medium or below in size, roundish, suture indistinct; stem short, 
slender; color nearly black, with a thin blue bloom; flesh tender, 
firm, nearly sweet, yellowish; freestone. Season medium. One 
of the hardiest of the blue plums, but is distinctly inferior in quality 
to the American plums just described. 



CHAPTER XVI 

PICKING THE FRUIT 

The subject of picking and packing fruit is one of vital 
importance to the western fruit-grower, who depends to a 
large extent on the demands of the eastern market. The 
inter-mountain states, which embrace some of the best 
fancy fruit-growing sections of the world, do not, by any 
means, contain the most desirable markets. The western 
markets are new, and the consumer has not been educated 
to pay fancy prices for fancy fruit. Not only this, but the 
western markets are no longer able to consume the western- 
grown fruit. The grower must study the demands of the 
distant markets, and, so long as the requirements can be 
met with justice to the profit side of his ledger, he will 
do well to cater to their demands. Even the experienced 
fruit-grower, thus isolated from his markets, to say nothing 
of the large class of inexperienced growers, might profit by 
the writers' efforts in this chapter on the picking and the 
packing of fruit. It is hoped that a general discussion of 
these subjects will help the grower to market his fruit more 
intelligently, and, to a certain extent, aid him to grasp 
the meaning of the stock phrases of the wholesaler so often 
accompanying unsatisfactory returns. 

The terms ''pack poor," ''poor grade," and "fruit in 
poor condition," so often used by the buyer, often mean 

250 



Picking the Fruit 251 

little to the grower after the fruit is out of his sight. He 
knows that the fruit was not satisfactory to the buyer, 
but he is often at a loss to know how to improve his 
methods of marketing. While the fruit-grower need not 
be alarmed over our present methods, we feel sure that im- 
provements in methods of picking, packing, and market- 
ing will have to keep pace with the rapidly increasing 
acreage of bearing orchards. Otherwise the net returns 
will gradually diminish until large profits, which are now 
the great stimulus to fruit-growing, will no longer recom- 
mend it to the man in search of a vocation. When asked 
whether there is any danger of overproduction of fancy 
fruit, we feel safe in answering in the negative, but always 
qualify the statement by suggesting that we may be 
obliged to grow better fruit. There will always be a market 
for the best fruit, and there will always be a best way to 
pick and to pack it. 

Picking the Fruit 

Possibly the grower of fancy fruit in the arid fruit sec- 
tions does not fully realize that much of his fruit is held 
in cold-storage during the early part of the season, and 
that the high price which he receives, as compared with 
prices paid for fruit in other sections, is due partly to its 
superiority as a cold-storage product. It is to the grower's 
advantage, then, to see that the fruit goes into storage in 
the best possible condition. This means that the fruit 
must be picked in the proper condition, handled carefully, 
and stored promptly. s. 

The fruit-grower must realize that the fruit is a living 
organism that reaches the end of its hfe and dies of old 



252 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

age. The life processes are proceeding continually, but 
more slowly in cool temperatures than at higher ones. It 
is the purpose of the cold-storage house to check the ripen- 
ing processes in the minimum temperatures that will not 
injure the fruit, and in this way prolong its life. The 
cooler temperature also checks the spread of fungi, that 
may kill the fruit prematurely. The ripening processes 
may then be considered little more than decay, and the 
fruit should be handled in a way to delay this decomposi- 
tion as long as possible. 

The fruit must not be allowed to become overripe upon 
the tree. It should be picked just as it reaches the height 
of its life development and before it begins to decline. 
Pears allowed to hang on the trees too long soften at the 
core and soon rot in storage. The Jonathan apple oc- 
casionally rots at the core in storage, and it is generally 
conceded that allowing the fruit to hang on the tree too 
long is the cause of the trouble. The Jonathan and some 
other varieties crack at the calyx end when picking is de- 
layed, and this also gives entrance for molds in storage. 
Under normal conditions the ripening processes proceed 
much faster after the fruit is picked from the tree, and 
every effort should be made to check it by storing the fruit 
in a cool place or promptly delivering it to the buyer. 

The following statements from a recent bulletin of the 
United States Department of Agriculture emphasize the 
importance of storing promptly : — 

''Rhode Island (Greening), Tompkins King, and Sutton 
apples picked September 15, 1902, and stored within three 
days, were firm till the following March, with no rot or scald, 
but fruit from the same trees not stored till two weeks after 



Picking the Fruit 253 

picking was badly scalded or decayed by the first of Janu- 
ary. None of the immediately stored fruit was scalded or 
decayed by the first of February, but the delayed Sutton 
and Rhode Island (Greening) apples were soft and mealy, 
and one -third were scalded at that time, while nearly 40 
per cent of the delayed Tompkins King were soft and 
worthless. The commercial value of these varieties was 
injured from 40 to 70 per cent by the delay in storage. 

''Apples of these varieties picked from the same trees 
on October 5, 1902, and stored immediately, and also 
some stored two weeks later were less injured by the delay, 
as the temperature and humidity were not sufficiently high 
to cause rapid ripening or the development of the fruit 
rots." 

To keep satisfactorily in cold-storage, fruit should be 
well colored; in other words, it should be well matured. 
Poorly colored fruit shows a tendency to scald in storage, 
and this explains why the buyer insists upon having well- 
colored fruit. The color may be improved by proper 
pruning, thinning, irrigation, and tillage and by planting 
varieties that ripen within the season. It is possible to 
secure a more uniformly matured and uniformly colored 
grade of apples by picking over the trees several times in- 
stead of taldng all the fruit at the first gathering. As yet, 
many growers have not reached this stage in the growing 
of fancy fruit, but it will no doubt come 

While in many of our fruit-sections we have not begun 
to wrap the fancy apples, it has been fully demonstrated 
that wrapping prolongs the life of the fruit in storage. It 
largely prevents the spread of rot fungi from one fruit to 
another, checks transpiration, and saves the fruit from 
many bruises in rough handling. 



254 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



Picking Equipment 

The grower with a large orchard knows that it pays to 
have good picking equipment, and he is generally ready 
to adopt new devices supposed to facilitate his work. 
The inventor has taken advantage of this readiness, and 
has introduced many appHances supposed to reduce the 





Fig. 65. — The Bowman Pick- 
ing Bag. 



Fig. 



66. — The Excelsior Picking 
Receptacle. 



labor of picking to a minimum. In the East we find that 
many kinds of fruit-pickers have been devised, and most of 
them discarded. The agent with the patent fruit-pickers 
has not invaded the western fruit countries. The only 
three essentials in picking fruit are: a careful man, a 
good picking receptacle, and a good ladder. Other 
appliances may be indulged as a luxury, but are gen- 



Picking the Fruit 



255 



erally discarded as impracticable in commercial opera- 
tions. 

Unfortunately, good pickers are not always to be had, 
and here the grower with the large orchard is at a disad- 
vantage. With a force of pickers 
of any size it will pay the grower 
to spend his time overseeing the 
work. More often, however, he 
considers the packing house a point 
of more vital importance to him 
and hires a competent man to look 
after the pickers. With tree-fruits 
it is better to pay the pickers by 
the day or hour in preference to 
paying so much per box. The man 
who is mean enough to take advan- 
tage of his employer under this 
system would injure him more if 
allowed to pick by the box. If one 
is paying a picker by the day, he 
can insist upon careful work being 
done. 

Several forms of picking recep- 
tacles are used. Some persons pre- 
fer a rather broad three-gallon tin 
pail; some use half -bushel baskets; 
and others use a special picking 
bag. The bucket is very good for picking soft fruit that is 
easily bruised, if the picker is careful in transferring the 
fruit to boxes for carrying it to the packing house. Too 
often, however, the picker is tempted to pour the fruit. 




Fig. 



67. — A Good Type 
of Ladder. 



256 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

Half-bushel baskets are rather awkward to handle, and 
unless made of sheet metal, are not very durable. The 
bails of the buckets and baskets may be supplied with a 
heavy wire hook, so that the receptacles may be hung on a 
limb, thus giving the picker two free hands. 




Fig. 68. —The Pole Ladder. Fig. 69. — A Wheel Ladder. 

The most convenient form of a picking receptacle is one 
of the picking bags, which is supplied with straps to run 
over the shoulders and thus support the bag in front of the 
body. Two types are commonly used, one a metal con- 
trivance with a drop-bottom and a canvas extension to 



Picking the Fruit 257 

facilitate emptying without bruising the fruit; the other 
a canvas bag open at the bottom, with a snap to close this 
opening and a heavy wire ring to keep the top distended. 
The two types are shown in Figures 65 and 66. 

Several types of picking ladders are now in use. One of 
the most convenient forms is a common step-ladder with a 
broad base, as that shown in Figure 67. The broad base 
allows the picker to lean to one side without danger of tip- 
ping the ladder. It is better to have two lengths in ladder 
instead of making all the pickers carry long ones. An- 
other ladder, rather handy for work on the inside of the 
tree, is that shown in Figure 68. With the top placed 
securely in a fork it is a very steady ladder to work on. 
Different types of wheel ladders have been introduced. 
Figure 69 is a common home-made form. This ladder is 
rather heavy and cumbersome to handle, and except for 
high cherry or pear trees it is not to be commended. For- 
tunately, our fruit-trees do not grow large, and we are 
learning to train them in convenient forms. 

Picking Apples 

Many rules have been laid down to guide the fruit- 
grower in picking apples. All are more or less correct, and 
probably all fail to be universally applicable. Taken as a 
whole, however, it should be possible to give a set of rules 
that is fairly reliable. 

One of the most common rules is to pick when the seeds 
begin to turn brown about the edges. In many cases this 
is a good rule to follow, but in others it is far from reliable. 
The writers have observed cases in which the seeds were 
practically brown thirty days before the fruit was really 



258 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

ready to pick. This is not a varietal characteristic, either, 
for we have seen the standard winter varieties with the 
seeds brown the first of September, and many are not 
picked until the middle of October. Allowing the ground 
to become dry in midsummer seems to color the seeds 
prematurely, yet the fruit will improve in color and size 
when the needed moisture is supplied. Other conditions 
may also have their influence on the coloring of the seed. 
Many of the early varieties are picked before the seeds 
show any color. But in most cases the color of the seed, 
in connection with other characters indicating maturity, 
is worthy of consideration. 

About as much reliance can be placed on the color of the 
fruit as any other one character. Well-colored fruit is 
desired by the market, a factor which must be catered to, 
and, within the bounds of reason, picking should be de- 
layed until the required color is attained. Yet we find 
cases in which it is out of the question so to delay the pick- 
ing; and, again, as the average grower understands color, 
some varieties show no colors that would indicate to him 
that the fruit is ready to be picked. In waiting for color 
one may run the risk of serious loss from wind or early 
freezes. Fruit matures better on some soils than on others, 
so that color cannot be considered a uniform character. 

The ease with which the fruit separates from the spur 
is one factor that often determines the season of picking. 
One cannot afford to wait for color in seeds or fruit after 
the stem loses its firm grip on the spur. The writers 
have known cases in which 75 per cent of a crop of 
fancy fruit has been sold as mnd-falts, and merely because 
the grower was waiting for color, regardless of the con- 



Picking the Fruit 259 

dition of the stem. With such varieties as the Fameuse 
(Snow) and Mcintosh, which have a habit of dropping 
more or less, we feel justified in running some risk in wait- 
ing for the fruit to color, even though the dropping indi- 
cates that the fruit should be picked. With such varieties 
as the Ralls (Geneton) and the Winesap it would be folly 
to wait for the stem to loosen, after the fruit has attained 
size and color. 

Flavor is a character worth considering in picking apples, 
as the fruit should begin to have some flavor before it is 
harvested. However, the flavor of the apple improves 
after i)icking, and allowing the apple to become eating 
ripe on the tree shortens its life in storage. The red colors 
improve little if any after picking, but the yellows im- 
prove in storage. As an exception to this statement it 
may be said that some summer varieties color after pick- 
ing. These four indicators of maturity must be considered 
together, and we cannot say that any one constitutes a 
safe rule to follow. 

Apples are generally picked in canvas picking bags, but 
buckets, baskets, and metal picking bags are used to some 
extent. The fruit should be picked with the stems on. 
The picker soon learns that by a certain tilting motion 
the stem may be separated from the spur with no damage 
to either. In some varieties the spurs are easily broken, 
so that careless pickers will bear watching. As a rule, the 
full crop is gathered at one picking, but there are cases 
when it pays to make more than one picking. When the 
fruit is ready to harvest, it is generally gathered regardless 
of size, as apples gain little in size after they are really 
ready to be picked. The fruit should be handled care- 



260 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

fully, as bruises detract much from its beauty and are often 
the starting points for decay. The fruit should be stored 
in a cool place as soon as possible after picking, and kept 
cool until delivered for shipment. 

Picking Apricots 

Rules that apply to picking peaches will apply equally 
well to the apricot. The fruit is tender and must be 
handled carefully. It is even more perishable than the 
peach, and it must be handled promptly. Its color im- 
proves in transit and storage, and fruit picked when the 
color is rather green often appears on the market an 
attractive yellow. 

Picking Cherries 

Cherries are picked before they are fully ripe. The best 
test for fitness is the taste. Color should also be a guide, 
as the fruit should have all the color possible before pick- 
ing. The fruit should also be well flavored before it is 
picked, for it improves little afterwards. By testing a few 
fruits one may soon train the eye to pick by color. 

The fruit is picked with the stems on. It may either 
be cut with shears or pulled by hand. If pulled by hand 
one should grasp the stems and not the fruit; the latter 
method loosens the fruit from the stem and the package 
is stained with juice and becomes unsightly before it 
reaches the market. Cherries are generally picked in 
buckets or baskets. The fruit should not be allowed to 
s^and in the sun after picking and it should be marketed 
promptly. 



Picking the Fruit 261 

Picking Peaches 

Picking peaches for the distant market and for the home 
market are two different considerations. In growing 
peaches in a commercial way, it is necessary to pick much 
of the fruit before it is ripe, and we must sacrifice flavor if 
we expect to reach the distant market. It does not im- 
prove much in flavor after picking. When one knows 
where the fruit is to be marketed, he may pick accordingly. 
More often, however, the grower has little idea where the 
fruit is to go, and must dehver it to the shipping point in 
condition to reach the most distant market. 

To a certain extent, color may be considered an indica- 
tion of ripeness in peaches, at least, it first draws the 
picker's attention. The fruit may or may not show a 
blush of red, but the green begins to lighten and traces of 
yellow appear on shaded parts. But the peach that is well 
colored is not always ready to be picked, and lack of color 
is not always a sign of greenness. 

The peach picker learns to go more by touch. Free- 
stones should be picked as soon as the fruit begins to feel 
elastic. One need not bruise the fruit to determine this, 
but simply clasp the fruit in the hand and test it with 
a gentle pressure, using the broad face of the thumb. 
Picked in this way there will always be enough soft fruit 
to supply the near-by markets. The clingstones need not 
be picked so promptly after the flesh becomes elastic 
to the touch, as they stand up much better in transit than 
the freestones and do not soften so quickly. They should 
be left until they attain very good flavor. In taking hold 
of the fruit one should be sure to test the suture side (the 



262 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

flesh near the fold or crease running from the stem toward 
the apex). While we have largely eliminated varieties 
that show a decided tendency to soften first at this point, 
we still find some specimens that do it. Specimens with 
split pits generally soften at the suture side first. 

Peaches must be handled carefully, as fruit bruised in 
picking or packing will not carry any great distance. 
Most peach-growers favor a rigid picking receptacle, as a 
bucket or a sheet metal picking bag. The metal picking 
receptacle shown in Figure 66 is a very good form. It is 
furnished with a drop-bottom and fruit may be easily 
transferred to a box without being bruised. Peaches car- 
ried in canvas picking bags are more or less bruised by 
striking against limbs or the ladder, or by being pressed 
between the picker and the limbs or the ladder. The fruifc 
should be transported from the orchard to the packing 
shed in shallow boxes. A very good box for such work is 
that shown at the base of the tree in the foreground in 
Figure 70. Most growers use a sled for short hauls and 
a wagon with springs for a longer haul. 

Picking Pears 

Most pears are picked rather green and ripened in 
storage, so that it is difficult to give rules that will guide 
the inexperienced grower. If pears are allowed to ripen 
on the tree, or if they are even allowed to advance far 
enough to show any pronounced indications of ripening, 
the fruit softens at the core and soon rots in transit or 
in storage; and, unlike most other fruits, the pear ripened 
in storage is of better flavor than when allowed to mature 
on the tree. Nearly every one not accustomed to hand- 



264 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

ling pears, makes the mistake of delaying picking too 
long. 

It is a common saying, that Bartlett pears are ready 
to pick as soon as they are large enough, or when over 
2^ inches in diameter. This, however, is not always 




Fig. 71. — Pear on Right Ready to pick; the Other too Green. 

a safe rule to follow, for pears on young trees or trees 
carrying a light crop may reach the desired size and yet 
be too green to ripen well. Pears picked too green wilt 
in storage and refuse to ripen. When ready to pick, 
the Bartlett and many other varieties have a characteristic 
mottled appearance as shown in Figure 71. The pear 



Picking the Fruit 265 

on the right is a Bartlett ready to pick and the one on 
the left is too green. This mottled or spotted appearance 
is brought about by a lightening of the dead green color 
over most of the surface, leaving the dark green base of 
the dots standing out in contrast with the lighter green. 
The first trace of yellow appears about the base of the 
stem, and fruit picked as, soon as the green begins to fade 
at this point will ripen in storage. This first change of 
color at the tip of the neck is considered to be a reliable 
indication of the maturity of the fruit. With some 
varieties these changes of color are not so pronounced and 
other tests must be applied. 

The ease with which the fruit separates from the spur 
is considered a reliable test for maturity and, with most 
varieties, a pear that comes from the ^ur when taken in 
the hand and tipped up is ripe enough to pick. It is 
generally conceded that the crop is ready to pick when 
the wormy specimens show the fi^rst indications of 
ripening, or when they begin to turn yellow and are 
well flavored. Experts also learn to pick by the grain 
of the flesh, as the coarseness disappears at picking 
time. 

It is the general practice to make two or three pickings, 
each time picking only those that are large enough to 
make a desirable pack. A light watering after each 
picking will help to bring the smaller fruit up to size. 
The picker may be given a 2\ inch ring and instructed 
to pick all that will not pass through it. A quicker way 
is to learn to measure with the hand. Clasp a 2\ inch 
pear in the hand and attempt to encircle it with the thumb 
and second finger, and in this way learn how near they 



266 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

should come to meeting on the smallest size allowed in 
a good pack. 

Pears should be carefully picked and handled to avoid 
bruising. Bruises do not show early, but after the fruit 
is ripe, decay starts quickly in the injured spots. The 
fruit should be picked with perfect stems and without de- 
stroying spurs. It should not be allowed to stand in the 
sun or warm storage, as this shortens its life in cold- 
storage; and, although it may be mature enough to ripen 
well in cold-storage, fruit may wilt if handled carelessly. 
It is best for the grower to harvest and market the pear 
crop as promptly as possible and let the buyer take the 
responsibility of ripening it. 

Picking Plums 

Plums are picked before they are really considered 
eating-ripe. Many of the red plums of the American 
and Japanese types will ripen well when picked green and 
will color well off the tree. As a rule, however, it is well 
to leave the fruit on the tree as long as possible, especially 
the fancier plums supplied to the fruit-stand trade. 
The varieties commonly known as prunes carry very 
well after they are really ripe. 

Like a peach, a plum picked after the flesh feels elastic 
to the touch will ripen well in storage or in transit. Plums 
picked for jelly are best taken rather green. 



CHAPTER XVII 
PACKING AND GRADING THE FRUIT 

The idea of packing tree-fruits in what we may term 
fancy packages is not an old one, and there is no reason 
to suppose that we have reached perfection. Yet there 
is little doubt that the western fruit-grower now leads 
in putting his fruit on the market in attractive packages. 
He prides himself on this point. Whether an indication 
of cleverness or an outgrowth of necessity, it has been 
demonstrated that it pays to market fruit in neat and 
attractive packages. 

It seems to us that the western fruit-packages have 
four points of merit: they are neat and attractive; they 
are of convenient size, that is, they suit the buyer of 
fancy fruit better than a larger sized package; they 
are of convenient form for shipping in car-load lots; and 
they carry the fruit in excellent condition. 

Probably the western grower may claim the credit 
for demonstrating that the first two points are worthy 
of consideration in choosing the fancy fruit-package. 
There is little doubt, however, but that the distance from 
market has had a marked influence on the evolution of 
the fruit-package in the West. Western growers have 
largely adopted the ideas worked out in California. 
Considering our distance from the large markets, it would 
be absurd for the western grower to try to market his 

267 



268 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

peaches in bushel baskets ; and almost as ridiculous to 
attempt to market apples and pears in barrels. The 
form of the package, and possibly its size, have been 
determined largely by conditions under which the western 
grower markets his product. The peach box, for example, 
is designed to reduce the loss from bruising to a minimum. 
The same is true of other packages; they are designed 
to carry fruit long distances. The western package is 
generally small as compared with other packages, and it 
is a favorite with consumers who do not care to take the 
risk of buying in larger quantities. A neat package is 
without question an advertisement for the fruit. 

Granting that our growers are satisfied with the package 
in which they market their fruit, the question of grading 
and packing is well worthy of consideration. The co- 
operative fruit-growers' association has done much to 
establish a uniform system of grading and packing fruit. 
Yet the writers are of the opinion that at the present 
time the management of some of our associations need 
arousing, that they may keep abreast of the times. Our 
growers are now allowing the fancy fruit-growing sections 
in the Northwest to take the lead, especially in grading 
and packing apples. So far we seem to be at the front 
in grading and packing pears and peaches; but even here 
competition will no doubt force us to improve on present 
methods. While many growers now contend that the 
present method of grading places the standard for fancy 
fruit too high, the writers expect soon to see the re- 
quirements raised for the different grades; and they will 
be raised at the request of progressive growers. When 
we say that the management of the association needs 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 269 

to be roused, we do not necessarily mean the man who 
stands at the head of the organization, for he often fore- 
sees changes that must come long before he dares to 
suggest them; it is the influential growers within the 
association who need to be made to realize that methods 
must be improved. 

The early idea of many associations was to pack the 
fruit at a central packing-house. By employing a com- 
petent man to look after the packers, they hoped to 
secure a uniform pack on which they could establish a 
reputation. The plan is still followed by some associa- 
tions, in spite of its drawbacks. With a large volume of 
business, however, it is impossible for the management to 
handle the fruit under such a system. It is impossible 
for one foreman to see that a hundred packers, or even 
half that number, pack a uniform grade. Again, it is 
not always possible to secure help, and the equipment 
generally proves inadequate at the critical time. To 
say the least, the difficulties experienced in securing a 
uniform grade and in handling a large crop, are burden- 
some to the management. 

The oldest association, and the one now doing the largest 
business in this group of states, has long since given up 
this plan and has adopted a system of platform inspection. 
Each grower is responsible for packing his fruit and de- 
livering it to the platform. Here the inspector opens 
as many of the boxes as he chooses and inspects the con- 
tents. If the grade and pack is satisfactory, the grower 
is given credit for so many boxes of such a grade; if the 
pack is not up to grade, he has his choice of having it 
'' marked-down" or taking it back home and regrading 



270 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

and repacking it. This association gives the growers 
instruction in packing and it furnishes printed rules for 
grading. 

After seeing the two systems in practice, the writers 
are incUned to consider the latter the best. The grower 
is made responsible for packing his own fruit, and he 
generally secures the help, or he works overtime doing 
it himself; and with a good inspector we think that the 
association markets a better grade of fruit. Repacking 
about one load of fruit will make such a lasting impression 
on the packer that he will never forget what constitutes 
a good grade. 

We realize that in arriving at this conclusion our ideas 
are contrary to those of some other writers on the subject. 
In a recent bulletin from the Idaho Experiment Station, 
Judson writes as follows in regard to the management 
of packers: ^'Few men are fit to pack their own apples, 
as it is too hard for them to see worm-holes. No fruit 
union can afford to allow members to do their own packing, 
and even unorganized communities would benefit greatly 
by employing the same body of trained packers successively 
at the various orchards. Even the isolated growers 
should endeavor, if their orchards are large, to train a 
group of expert packers and employ the same ones as 
far as possible year after year. This is the way to build 
up a reputation that has a cash value." 

Judson seems to arrive at this conclusion after studying 
the system employed by the Hood River Apple Growers' 
Union. This association handles its own packers, send- 
ing them out in groups of four, each group with a com- 
petent foreman. We realize that this is different from 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 271 

one man handling a hundred packers, and with this 
system Hood River has developed a remarkable reputa- 
tion for its fancy apples. An idea of the precautions 
taken by this association in handling its packers, and the 
care with which they are chosen, is best conveyed by 
quoting their printed instructions to packers: — 

INSTRUCTIONS TO PACKERS 

1. A crew will consist of four packers and one foreman extra. 

2. Each packer, before he is permitted to pack for the Apple 
Growers' Union, must have his name registered at the office of 
the Union and receive a rubber stamp free. He shall be required 
to stamp each box at the lower left hand corner when packed 
with his official stamp. 

3. Each packer shall be required to put up a first-class pack. 
If upon any inspection any packer be found guilty of putting up 
a poor pack, or putting in apples not suitable for the pack being 
made, he shall bear the expense of repacking such box or boxes 
for the first two offenses. Upon further neglect he shall be dropped 
from the list of the Apple Growers' Union packers. 

4. Each packer, when a box is packed, shall write with pencil 
upon the end of the box, in the center near the top, the number 
of apples the box contains. 

5. Each box of apples shall be packed with about a f-inch 
to 1-inch swell in the middle of the top and bottom combined, 
but no box must be packed so high that it will be necessary to 
cleat the box before nailing on the lid. 

6. Each packer shall receive his pay from the grower in cash, 
or on a written order on the Apple Growers' Union, which will be 
cashed by the manager on presentation. 

7. The charges fixed by the Union and agreed to by the packers 
for packing, will be 5 cents per box for all boxes containing 128 
apples or less, and 5 cents per box for all boxes packing 4J tier. 
All 5-tier apples will be packed at 6 cents. This price shall cover 
any and all packs ordered by the manager. 



272 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

8. Each packer will be furnished meals by the grower where 
he is packing, without charge, but must make necessary arrange- 
ments for his bedding. 

9. Packers are only required to pack fruit properly wiped and 
assorted from culls fairly well by the grower before being placed 
upon the packing table, but the packer will be required to make 
the final culling, which shall not exceed 8 per cent, or 8 boxes in 
100. Such boxes as the packer may throw out he will be required 
to handle with as much care as first-class fruit. 

10. Each packer must be supplied with suitable and necessary 
room at the packing table, which must be properly and sub- 
stantially made. 

11. Each packer shall require the grower to supply him with 
empty boxes and have the paper in a convenient place. 

12. Each packer must set off his box when packed. 

13. If the grower is not properly prepared for the packers, 
the packers will be at liberty to move on, or may charge the 
grower at the rate of 20 cents per hour for extra time spent in 
culling and wiping properly. It shall be the duty of each packer 
to notify the grower of such conditions, when existing, in advance, 
and should the grower make a protest, the packer will be at 
liberty to move on and report the matter to the manager, who 
will endeavor conscientiously to adjust the matter satisfactorily. 

14. Packers must be sure to have the exact number of apples 
in the box as numbered. Foremen are cautioned to watch this. 
Avoid criticism by following this instruction. We are on the 
lookout for this sleight-of-hand trick. 

15. Please assist the packer. He is also a grower and your 
friend; and remember he is following the instructions given by 
the Board of Directors, who are acting as directors with your 
interest at heart, giving one day each week of their time without 
pay. 

We must give these Oregon growers the credit of put- 
ting their apples on the market in what is probably the 
finest commercial pack ever put up. (Fig. 97.) The time 
is probably not far distant when other fancy fruit-growing 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 273 

localities will be following their example. Their apples 
are packed as carefully as most growers pack their peaches 
or pears, or as carefully as California growers pack their 
oranges, and the returns justify them for the extra labor 
and expense. The association schools its packers and 
holds them responsible for faults in their own packing. 
While the printed instructions state that the packers are 
paid by the piece, this plan has been abandoned and the 
packers are now paid by the day. Provided such a 
system can be worked on a large scale, this is no doubt the 
best method of handling packers that has yet been de- 
vised. 

Packing Appliances 

It is hardly necessary to mention the desirability of 
having convenient packing equipment on the fruit-farm. 
Most growers are provided with packing houses, but 
many of these buildings are poorly lighted. In planning 
the packing house, this point should be given special 
attention as the packers must have good light properly to 
grade the fruit. 

Packing out of doors is often hard on the packers and 
hard on the fruit, especially in the warm days of early 
fall. Figure 70 shows a force of packers moved outside 
because the well-equipped packing house proved too small 
for the force of packers necessary to handle a large crop 
from a 200-acre orchard. 

Owners of large orchards sometimes supply themselves 
with a large tent in which to do the packing. It is sur- 
prising how cool a tent will keep the fruit, and the light 
is almost perfect. The grower should at least provide 
some place where the fruit may be stored in the shade as 

T 



274 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



soon as picked and kept as cool as possible until it can 
be delivered to the shipping point. 

Packing tables are generally home-made. The table 
shown in Figure 70 is a very good type. Each of these 
tables accommodates four packers, has stands for two 
boxes in front of each packer, and a stand for the cull- 
box on either side near the center. 
This table has a canvas bottom 
and fruit may be packed from it 
with very little danger of bruis- 
ing. It could be improved by 
placing the stands for the boxes 
a little higher and constructing 
them so that they hold the boxes 
in an inclined position, the end 
near the packer being slightly 
lower. 

Most tables are made to ac- 
commodate two packers. It is 
a good plan to have the top of 
the table on an incline, the pack- 
ers working on the lower side. 
The table is filled from the back and the fruit gradually 
slides down to the front as the packer works that nearest 
him off the table. Tables with board bottoms should be 
well padded and all sharp corners should be covered. 
The best tables have either canvas or burlap bottoms. 

There are many styles of box-presses to be had, both 
factory-made and home-made. A good press is indis- 
pensable in packing apples and pears. Figure 72 shows 
a very good type of press that may be used for either 




Fig. 72. — Box Press. 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 275 

apples or pears. There are other presses, however, that 
are just as good and some that are not nearly so cumber- 
some. 

Box material, or ^'box shook" as it is called, is bought 
knocked-down and is made up by the grower. The com- 
mon price paid for making apple and pear boxes is 90 
cents per hundred. A box-maker who knows his business 
will set up fifty boxes per hour. Peach boxes are made 
by the piece for 40 cents per hundred. The following 
is the price list on box material as furnished the growers 
by the Grand Junction Fruit-growers' association during 
the season of 1908 : — 

BOXES 

Per 100 Less than 50 

3f- and S-inch Peach $ 8.00 % 8.50 

4-inch Peach 8.50 , 9.00 

4i-inch Peach 9.00 9.50 

5-inch Peach 9.50 10.00 

4i-inch Grape Crates (no baskets) ... 11.00 11.50 

4i-inch Grape Crates, complete . . . . 15.00 15.50 

Pear Boxes 14.00 14.50 

Apple Boxes 16.00 16.50 

Standard Cantaloupe Crates 16.00 16.50 

Pony Cantaloupe Crates 16.00 16.50 

Tin Top Baskets 1.00 1.00 

Climax Baskets 5.00 5.00 



PARTS OF BOXES 
Apples 

Per 100 boxes Per bundle 

Ends $6.75 $ .90 

Sides 5.40 1.35 

Top and Bottoms 5.40 1.35 

Cleats 50 .50 



276 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



Pear 

Per 100 boxes 

Sides $4.40 

Ends . 6.00 

Peach 

Ends 3.00 

Sides 2.20 

Grape Crates 

Ends 4.00 

Sides 2.20 

Bottoms 2.20 

Tops 3.00 

Cleats 80 



Per bundle 


$1.10 


.75 


.75 


1.10 


1.00 


1.10 


1.10 


1.50 


.80 



PAPER 

Peach, Pear, and Apple, paper, per 100 



Bundle Broken bundle 
$5.50 $6.00 



NAILS 

Barbed Box Nails, 4d, 5d, 6d . . . 
Cement Coated Nails, 3d, 4d, 5d, 6d 
Cement Coated Nails, 2d . . . . 



Keg 
$4.50 
4.50 
5.00 



Pound 

$ .05 

.07 

.10 



A keg of cement nails contains only about seventy pounds, 
but contains the same number of nails as a keg of wire nails. 



BERRY BOXES 

Hallock Folding Quart Boxes, square, per M .... $ 3.50 

Hallock Folding Pint Boxes, square, per M 3.00 

Hallock Folding Pint or Quart Boxes, square, per 100 . .40 

Hallock Crates, Quart Spruce, per 100 10.00 

Hallock Crates, Pint Spruce, per 100 9.00 

Packing Apples 

In the several inter-mountain states there are various 
systems of apple-packing. Possibly the bulk of the apple 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 



277 



crop is packed in what is known as the '^jumble pack," 
and in two grades known as '^fancy" and ''choice.'^ 
Some associations put out a particular pack known as 




eOMJMBIHjB 




■'€. . 



Fig. 73. — A Typical Box Label for Extra Fancy Fruit; also illustrates 
the 2-2 Pack. 



"extra fancy/' and label it with some special label as 
that shown in Figure 73. This grade is extra-selected 
for size and color, but is otherwise no better than the fancy 



278 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

grade. It is a question whether with this system of pack- 
ing it is better to pack in three grades or in two. 

Fancy fruit must be of good size, free from worm-holes 
or worm-stings or other defects, of good color, and good 
shape. The standard of size generally given for the 
different varieties are those found in the grading list 
of the Grand Junction Fruit-growers Association, as 
printed below. The choice grade is made up of fruit 
larger than 2i inches in diameter, reasonably free from 
worms or other blemishes. It is true that buyers seem 
to find little fault with this method, but competition will 
probably necessitate a more uniform method of grading 
and a better system of packing. 

Boxes of different dimensions are used in the various 
fruit sections. They are made of light pine, the ends of 
f -inch, and the sides, tops, and bottoms of ^-inch material. 
Material f of an inch in thickness is sometimes recom- 
mended for the sides, as it prevents bulging. Boxes are 
generally stacked and hauled on the side, and if the sides 
are bulged there is a tendency to bruise the fruit. The 
sides of the box are each a single piece, while the tops and 
bottoms are generally made of two pieces. In making 
up the box, the top is put on instead of the bottom and 
is held with | X f inch cleats. These cleats mark the face 
of the box; and the package is naturally opened on this 
side, as the cleats facilitate opening. If the box were 
faced on both sides, it might be well to cleat both top and 
bottom. As a rule, where the jumble pack is used, the 
box has inside dimensions ofll|-XllJxl8 inches and 
should hold fifty pounds when packed. 

For the fancy grade the box is lined with paper. The 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 



279 



paper is usually cut 18 x 24 inches, two pieces being 
sufficient to line the bottom, sides, and top of the box. 



W 



' -# # 



#; 



y 



Fig. 74. — The 2-3 Pack. 



A one-inch plait is folded across the paper about six 
inches from one end. In placing the paper in the box, 
this fold is laid in the angle between the side and bottom, 



280 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



thus furnishing enough slack so that the paper will not 
tear when the top and bottom of the box bulge. Some 
persons use paper in the end of the box, but this is not 
necessary. Boxes for choice fruit are seldom lined. 




Fig. 75. — The 3-3 Pack. 



The box is placed before the packer with the end from 
the packer slightly raised. The apples in the first layer 
are placed with the stems down and they are neatly ar- 
ranged, for this is to be the face of the box. Whether 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 



281 



the face is to be the 2-3 or the 3-3 pack will depend on 
the size of the fruit. Large fruit is sometimes packed the 
2-2 pack. Figure 74 is a box of Gano faced with the 
2-3 pack. The box shown in Figure 75 is faced with 
the same apples except that a few of the larger ones had 
to be replaced with smaller ones in order to make it 
come out right with the 3-3 pack. 
According to the size of the fruit, 
the face should be packed to pre- 
sent the neatest appearance, and 
the face showing the fewer large 
openings is generally considered the 
neater. The straight pack as shown 
in Figure 76 is sometimes used, but 
it is too hard on the fruit, one apple 
lying directly on top of the one in 
the tier below. The second tier is 
faced stem down as the first, and, 
with the '^ diagonal" or '^ offset" 
pack, is placed to cover the open- 

r . : , n . .- . 1 Fig. 76. — Straight Pack. 

ings m the first tier as is shown 

by Figure 75. The remainder of the apples are put in 
with the jumble pack, paying little attention to placing 
them; they find their places. The box should be so filled 
that when the bottom is pressed down and nailed on, the 
box will appear as shown in Figure 77. So long as the 
jumble pack is used, this bulge should be f inch to an 
inch on both top and bottom. 

When the fruit is packed in tiers all the way through, a 
box of different dimensions has come into use. The box 
known as the '^standard" in the Northwest has inside di- 




282 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



mensionsof 10^^ X ll^ x 18 and the "special" 10 X 11 X20. 
It has been found necessary to use these sizes in putting 
up the fancy tier packs. They accommodate all sizes 
of apples. The apples are packed in regular tiers and are 
graded very uniformly as to size. They are wrapped in 
paper, and a piece of heavy cardboard is placed between 




Fig. 77. — Box of Apples Read^^ for Shipment, showing Proper Bulge 
of Top and Bottom. 



each two tiers. The number of apples packed in each 
box is stamped on the end. This is no doubt the best 
pack of apples put on the market to-day. Wrapped and 
packed in this way, the box of apples appeals to the buyer 
as a strictly fancy package. The fruit carries with fewer 
bruises, and such a pack is especially desirable for export 
trade. The time is probably not far distant when all 
fancy apples will be marketed in this way. Wrapping 
prolongs the life of the fruit in storage. When packed 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 283 

in regular tiers, it is best to place the apples in the top 
and bottom tier stems outward. 

Packing Apricots 

Apricots are packed for shipment in the common four- 
basket carrier, which is used for grapes and plums. The 
inside measurement of this crate is 16 x 16 x A.^ inches, 
and it carries four wood-veneer boxes, each 8 inches 
square and 4 inches deep. The way in which the fruit 
is packed depends on its size. The fruit must be large 
enough to fill the basket and stand high enough to touch 
the lid when packed three-tier. This requires a fruit 
with one diameter of at least 1^ inches, and to pack apri- 
cots of this size, it is necessary to stand them on end and 
place one directly over the other. Fruit of this size does 
not make a satisfactory pack, and a size large enough to 
work with the diamond pack is desirable; this bruises 
the fruit less. 

The empty baskets are placed in the crate and packed 
with paper between each two layers of fruit. This paper is 
a continuous strip, first running across the bottom and 
then over each layer of fruit by being worked back and 
forth across the basket. With the third tier in place 
the end should be long enough to cover the face of the 
basket. The fruit is placed in any position to pack to 
the best advantage. When the four baskets are full, 
the face of the crate should have the appearance of that 
of a solid box of fruit. The fruit should be snugly packed 
in each tier, and the last tier must stand high enough to 
give a slight bulge to the cover. Both the bottom and 
the top of the crate are cleated to relieve the bulge of 
any pressure in stacking the crates. 



/ 



284 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

Packing Cherries 

Growers outside of Oregon and Washington are raising, 
simply canning cherries. While the inter-mountain or- 
chardmen are beginning to grow some of the fancy varie- 
ties, they are really not growing a fancy grade or shipping 
them in a fancy package. 

At present the bulk of the cherry crop of most sections 
is sold in strawberry crates. Different styles of crates 
are used, the common crate holding twenty-four quart 
boxes, the square or oblong form being used more often 
than any other. Of the two, the square box is possibly 
a little easier packed and faced. Regardless of the box, 
the packing is the same. The first requirement is that 
each box shall contain a pound of fruit, and the twenty- 
four-basket crate should weigh about thirty pounds gross. 
The boxes should be faced with no stems showing, if the 
package is to make an attractiv^e appearance, and most 
shipping associations require the grower to face the pack- 
age in this way. The fruit should be well colored for the 
variety and of good size; it should also be sound and 
must not have stems loosened or pulled off. 

Fancy cherries are largely shipped in ten-pound boxes. 
The inside dimension of this box is 18|- X 9 x 2^ inches. 
It is divided in the middle and gives two cells 9 X 9 X 2 J. 
The cherries are packed in layers, the face of the package 
showing no stems. 

Figure 78 shows the different-sized packages that are 
used in shipping cherries. They hold thirty, ten, and 
eight pounds respectively, while the individual cartons 
shown at the top contain but one pound. When first 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 285 




Yjg, 78. —Cherry Packages. (Courtesy of " Better Fruit.") 



286 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



opened, the larger packages present a very pleasing ap- 
pearance, but as soon as the face of the package is dis- 
turbed, they are often far from pleasing. The pound 
cartons are not open to this objection, and for this reason 
are much more satisfactory to the retailer, as the last 
pound makes as good an appearance as a full crate. 

Packing Peaches 

The peach has probably been marketed in as great a 
variety of packages as any other fruit, from the bushel 
basket to the common grape basket and the four- and six- 
basket carriers. But 
the California peach 
box, in which all Colo- 
rado-grown peaches are 
now shipped, seems to 
come nearest perfec- 
tion of any package 
ever used for shipping 
peaches long distances. 
It is a convenient shape 
for loading in cars, car- 
ries the fruit in excel- 
lent condition, and may 
be termed a fancy-sized 
package. It is a light 
pine box 18 inches in 
length and 11^ inches 
in width, and is made 
in three depths, 4, 4^, 
and 5 inches (all meas- 




FiG. 79. — Peaches, 6-6 Straight Pack. 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 



287 



urements inside dimensions). The ends are of |J-inch; 
and the tops, sides, and bottoms of ^-inch material. 
As the box carries only two layers, the lower one is not 
bruised by the weight of the fruit above, and the contents 
cool quickly in the car 
or in storage. The box 
is made up in a way 
to provide ample ven- 
tilation. 

Peaches are com- 
monly packed in three 
grades, and although 
they may go by differ- 
ent names, they are 
practically uniform. 
The common terms 
used to designate 
these grades are '^ex- 
tra," "90's," and 
''108's''; or ''extra 
fancy," "fancy," and 
''choice." While 
many of our Eastern 
friends persist in call- 
ing for "choice" fruit 
when they mean "fancy," the western grower has a dislike 
of the term "choice"; and some persons object to calling 
the " 108's" "choice," when in the true sense of the word 
they are not. The first set of terms is to be preferred. 
A box of " extra " peaches should run less than 80 to the box, 
a box of "90's" from 81 to 94, and "108's" from 95 to 108. 




Fig. 80. — Peaches, 3-3 Pack. 



288 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



These three grades are packed in the 4-, A.^-, and 5-inch 
boxes respectively. Occasionally a smaller grade, known 
as ^^pies, " is packed unwrapped and shipped to near-by 
markets, but as a rule it will not pay to ship such fruit. 

The years when the 
grower really gets prof- 
itable returns from 
108's are the exception 
rather than the rule. 
Extras sometimes run 
as low as 40 to the 
box, but such fruit is 
too large to be widely 
popular; probably the 
most popular size is 
the extra running 
from 70 to 80 to the 
box. 

Most peaches are 
graded by hand, and 
there seems to be little 
promise of finding a 
more satisfactory sys- 
tem. The packers 
grade the fruit as they 
pack. They have the three boxes for the three marketable 
grades before them and a cull box at one side for the 
remainder. Experienced packers are able to grade by 
eye, and inexperienced packers are furnished gauges to go 
by until they learn. Peaches that grade extra must not 
run less than 2^ inches in diameter, fancy from 2\ to 2\, 
and choice from 2 to 2\. 




Fig. 81. — Peaches, 4-5 Pack. 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 289 

So far only one fruit association (The Peach Growers' 
Association, Pahsade, Colorado) has installed machinery 
for grading. This plant has been in operation only one sea- 
son, and it cannot be said that it has been fully tested. The 
writers have watched the plant in operation, and while 
it gives an absolutely uniform grade of fruit, it seems that 
some fruit cannot escape being bruised. The fruit is 
first lifted to the grading belts from the floor level by 
an elevator, and is then lowered from the hoppers to the 
distributing belts through a canvas tube. The fruit of 
each grade is weighed automatically, and the grower is 
given credit by these weights. The managers of the 
business seem to be pleased with the system. If the 
associations insist on packing peaches at a central pack- 
ing house, some such system of grading niust be installed. 
Previous to the installing of the grader, this association 
graded with one of the common foot-power graders. 

Peaches should be packed from well-padded or canvas- 
bottom packing tables, and should be handled as care- 
fully as possible. The table should be so arranged that 
the packer has a place for three boxes and a stand for 
the wrapping paper. One end of the box is shghtly 
raised, and each layer is packed from the lower end up. 
The packer generally stands with the right hand to the 
table, takes the fruit in the right hand, places it in the 
center of the paper in the left hand, crumples the paper 
about it, and then places it in the box. The paper is 
a rather heavy tissue, 7x7 or 7x8 inches. The experi- 
enced packer learns many little tricks in wrapping and 
packing. More is gained than one would think in having 
the paper in just the right place, and a rubber stall on 



290 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



the thumb of the left hand is a great help in picking 
up the paper. 

There are many styles of packs. Men who are in 
a position to know seem to prefer the 3-3 or the 2-3 

pack for all grades, 
and the time will come 
when these will be the 
only packs allowed. 
Any of the straight 
packs are objection- 
able, as one fruit lies 
directly on top of the 
one below. Figure 
79 illustrates what is 
called a 6-6 straight 
pack. It is objection- 
able because it allows 
the packer to pack too 
small a grade of fruit. 
As the peaches of the 
top tier lie directly 
on top of those below, 
many bruises result. 
Figure 80 illustrates 
the 3-3 pack of 108's. 
This takes a little larger fruit, and it is more desirable. 
The first box contains the maximum number of peaches 
for this grade and the second only 102. Figure 81 illus- 
trates the 4-5 pack of 90's, a very neat pack, but the 
large openings along the sides are objectionable. For 
the sake of uniformity it would have been better to 




Fig. 82. — Peaches, 2-3 Pack. 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 291 

have used the 3-3 pack; in fact, such a pack is not 
allowable. Figure 82 is the 2-3 diamond pack used 
for the extra grade. This box contains 70 peaches 
and may be considered an excellent grade. This style 
will accommodate peaches of any size, from 40 to 80 to 
the box. Associations should insist on a 3-3 pack for 
108's and 90's and a 2-3 pack for extras, and many do 
so. These styles have proved to be the best, and uni- 
formity in packing is a great aid in marketing. 

In placing the fruit in the box it should be pressed 
together tightly enough to give a slight bulge to the sides 
of the box; and by working the larger fruit nearer the 
center it gives a slight bulge to the top and bottom. With 
the top on the box every fruit should be held firmly 
in position. Both the top and the bottom are cleated 
to save the fruit from any pressure after the boxes are 
stacked. 

Overripe fruit is culled out by the packer and is either 
packed in boxes and marked ''Ripe," for local shipment, 
thrown in the cull box, or put in boxes to be delivered to the 
canning factory. 

Some growers are beginning to wrap a part of the fruit 
with wrappers printed in attractive colors with a design and 
the owner's name and address; others are wrapping in two 
colors of paper. It may be said that both add to the 
attractiveness of the package, and the first surely shows 
that the grower is not ashamed of his grade and pack. 

Most of the packing is done by girls. A good worker 
will pack 200 to 250 boxes per day. The common price 
paid for packing peaches is two cents per box. The grower 
delivers the fruit to the table and furnishes a man to take 



292 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

away the packed boxes and cover them. The man who 
does this work is generally hired by the day; on large 
jobs, as at a central packing house, they are sometimes 
paid by the piece. 

Packing Plums 

All the larger plums and prunes are packed in the same 
way as apricots, in the four-basket crate. The fruit must 
be big enough to fill the basket and touch the cover of the 
crate when packed four-tier. It will be seen by the grading 
list of the Grand Junction Fruit-growers' Association that 
the packed crate must have a gross weight of twenty-eight 
pounds or more. 

Small plums of the American type. Damson and the 
like, are shipped in 2|-inch plum boxes. The box must 
be well filled and neatly faced. The inside dimensions of 
this box are 18 X 11|- X 2| inches. 

Packing Pears 

Western pears are shipped in a box commonly known 
as the California pear box. This is made of light material, 
as spruce or pine; the ends of f-inch, and the tops, sides, 
and bottoms ^-inch material. The inside dimensions of 
this box are 18 X 11-^- X 8|^. It is supposed to hold a 
bushel and should have a gross weight of at least fifty- 
three pounds when packed. 

Pears are packed in two grades, ^^fancy" and '^ choice,'^ 
and each grade in three sizes, four-tier, five-tier, and six- 
tier. ''Fancy'' pears must be free from worms or worm 
stings, abrasion marks, scale pits, and other defects, and 
must be smooth and of good shape. Excepting where 
characteristic of the variety, heavy russeting, which is 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 293 

sometimes the result of a light frost in the spring, is ob- 
jectionable on fancy fruit; it detracts from the beauty of 
the fruit when it is ripened. The '^ choice" fruit must 
be reasonably free from worms, may include fruit with 
abrasion marks (limb rubs, etc.), russet, or a few scale pits, 
and fruit slightly '^off" in shape. However, the term 




a c b 

Fig. 83. — Pears: a, 2-3 Pack; b, 3-3 Pack; c, 3-4 Pack. 

^'choice" must not be misconstrued to mean everything 
that grows on pear trees. 

The terms " four-tier," ''five-tier," and ''six-tier" refer to 
the number of layers of fruit required to fill the box. A six- 
tier pack contains fruit under 2^ inches in diameter, and 
in one sense may be considered choice. Some varieties, 
however, seldom run larger than this. The five-tier pack 
seems to be the favorite as far as the markets are concerned; 
it should contain pears 2{ to 2f inches in diameter. 
Larger pears make up the four-tier pack, which finds a 



294 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



rather brisk demand at good prices, but it is not so good a 
seller as the five-tier and seldom demands a better price. 
The neatest pack of pears put on the market is the five- 
tier pack, running 135 pears to the box, requiring fruit all 
running close to 2| inches in diameter. 

For sake of uniformity the four-tier pear should be 
packed with the 2-3 pack as shown 
in Figure 83 a, and the five-tier and 
six-tier with the 3-3 pack, shown in 
Figure 83 6. The terms, ^'2-3," 
'^3-3," ^^5-6,'' etc., refer to the 
number of fruits in adjacent rows, 
either across the box or from end to 
end. Packed in this way, the face 
and sides show very few openings. 
The buyer often opens the package 
on the side, and he gets a bad im- 
pression if he sees as many holes as 
pears. As a matter of fact, if the 
four-tier pears shown in Figure 83 a 
were packed the 3-3 pack, the box 
would contain more pears in spite of 
the large openings that would appear if the side of the 
box was removed. The smallest five-tier pack allowed, 
but one that is not encouraged, contains 180 pears, packed 
3-3 across the box and 6-6 long; the next pack contains 
165 pears, packed 5-6, long; the next 150 pears, the rows 
5-5 long; and the largest, 135 pears, packed 4-5 long. 
Occasionally we find such a five-tier pack as that shown in 
Figure 84. This is packed five-tier, as is shown by a side 
view of the box in Figure 85, but there are too many pears 




Fig. 84. — Pears, Five-tier 
Pack of Six-tier Grade. 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 



295 



in the rows; in other words, the fruit is too small for a five- 
tier pack, and this package would be marked down to six- 
tier by the inspector. Most of the pears in this box are 2\ 
inches in diameter, but the pears of this variety are short, 
and the box contains 210 pears. This fruit could have been 
packed six-tier, 5-6 long, to good advantage. A 3-4 pack 
is sometimes allowed on a six-tier pear, but it gives the 
packer an opportunity to work in fruit 
that is really too small. From the 135 
five-tier pack we drop to the four-tier 
packed 2-3 across the box and 5-6 
long, the box containing 110 pears; 
then to 5-5 long with 100 pears; 4-5 
with 90 pears; and the largest size, 4-4 
long with 80 pears. Larger pears are 
generally packed some other style. 
Occasionally we see a 6-6 four-tier, 
the box containing 120 pears. While 
such a pack is often passed by the 
inspector, it is better to work such 
fruit into a good five-tier pack. 

Possibly in a few cases it may be 
necessary to vary from the styles of packs here given, in 
order to make a neat-appearing package with odd-shaped 
fruit. The main point is to see that the face and side do 
not show large openings. If pears are carefully packed 
with either the 2-3 or the 3-3 pack, one has no trouble 
to secure the required weight. Growers often complain 
that the boxes will not hold fifty pounds of fruit without 
bursting the top or bottom, but if they will drop the 3-4 
and the 4-4 packs, they will have no difficulty. 




Fig. 85. — Side View 
of 84. 



296 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

There is evidently a difference of opinion as to the mean- 
ing of the terms '^four-tier/' ''five-tier/' and so on, in dif- 
ferent fruit-growing sections. As we understand the word 
*Hier" as appHed to a pear pack, it means a layer of fruit 
in the box, and so long as we take Webster's definition, we 
will probably have to hold to the idea that a four-tier pack 
of pears is one with four layers of fruit and a five-tier 
pack one with five layers of fruit. It is unfortunate that 
growers cannot agree on the use of such simple terms 
as these. 

Possibly the only way our pear pack could be improved 
would be to grade the fruit a little more uniformly, that is, 
avoid mixing 2\- and 2f-inch pears in a miscellaneous five- 
tier pack. If pears are properly packed, there is no 
trouble determining how many pears the box contains, 
and surely the buyer would appreciate having the exact 
number stamped on the end of the box. The fruit vender 
would then know how many pears he is buying, how much 
he can afford to pay, and how he must sell them to make a 
profit. Oranges and lemons, and fancy apples from some 
sections, are now packed in this way, and there is no reason 
to suppose that it will not pay to pack and mark pears with 
the same care. 

Pears are wrapped in the common grade of paper used 
for wrapping fruit, cut in sizes 8x9 and 9X10, the smaller 
size for the five- and six-tier fruit. Even after one has 
learned how, it requires practice to become a good pear 
packer. Different packers wrap in different ways. One 
of the simplest methods of wrapping, and also one of the 
neatest, is to hold the paper in the left hand, rough side 
up, lay the pear on the paper, then fold the lower left-hand 



PacJdng and Grading the Fruit 



297 



corner over the neck of the pear with the left thumb, catch 
it with the first finger of the right hand, with the other 
fingers of this hand clasping the base of the pear give it a 
twist to the right, wrapping the paper about the neck in a 
neat cone-shape, and complete the process by gathering 
the loose corners of the paper in the right hand and folding 
them under the pear. Wrapped 
in this way, the pear will appear 
as shown in Figure 86. Others 
wrap more quickly possibly by 
placing the pear diagonally across 
the paper near the center, gather- 
ing the corners together about the 
base, and with a twist to the 
righ*t, wrap the other loose corners 
about the neck. This makes a 
"very neat wrap when one learns 
how to make it. Short stubby 
pears are difficult to wrap, but 
one can generally find some neat 
way. Be sure to have paper 
large enough. Packers always wrap with the rough side 
of the paper to the pear. 

In packing the box is placed in front of the packer with 
the farther end shghtly raised. The first pear is placed 
in one of the lower corners of the box, and the other two 
pears in this first row are placed according to the pack. 
If it is to be a four-tier, one is placed in each corner and one 
in the center; if a five-tier, the other two are evenly spaced 
between the first pear and the opposite edge of the box, 
leaving as much space between the last pear and the side 




Fig. 86. — Wrapping Pears, 
First, place Pear in One 
Corner of Paper; a Twist 
to the Right and a Cone- 
shaped Package results. 



298 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

of the box as between pears. With the first row of the 
tier in place with the butts to the lower end of the box, 
the position of all other pears in the tier is reversed, 
the stem toward the packer or the lower end of the box. 
In the four-tier pack the second row will contain only two 
pears, and they will be placed one on either side of the 
center pear of the first row. The third row contains three, 
the fourth two, and so on until the opposite end of the box 
is reached. Here the last rows butt against the other end 
of the box. Starting again at the lower end of the box, 
two pears are placed in the first row of the second tier, 
one on either side of the center pear of the first row of the 
first tier^ and the tier is completed as the first. The third 
and fourth tier start with three and two pears respec- 
tively. In this way the pears of each succeeding layer fit 
down between the pears in the tier below. In the five- 
tier pack the only difference is that each row across the 
box contains three pears, the adjacent rows of each tier 
starting on opposite sides of the box, and the first row of 
succeeding tiers start on opposite sides of the box. To 
make the latter point plain, suppose the first pear of the 
first tier is in the lower left-hand corner, then the first pear 
of the second tier will be in the right-hand corner. The 
larger pears are worked toward the center of the box to 
give it the desired bulge, or if they run quite uniform in size, 
the same result may be accomphshed by crowding the 
pears a little closer together in the center. While we still 
find some five-tier pears packed 3-4, this pack should be 
avoided whenever possible. Six-tier pears are some- 
times packed 3-4, and it is not objectionable if the total 
number of pears does not run too high. 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 299 

Seckel pears are usually shipped, without wrapping, in 
five-inch peach boxes lined with the heavy paper com- 
monly used in lining apple boxes. Small fruit of other 
varieties is sometimes shipped in this way and labeled 
''pickling pears." The time may not be far distant when 
our fanciest fruit will be shipped in one of the peach boxes 
or in half-bushel boxes. Some of our early Bartletts are 
now shipped in this way. 

Pears are generally packed by the piece, five cents per 
box being the common wage paid. Most of the packing is 
done by girls, who pack from fifty to seventy-five boxes 
per day. Men who are expert at the business have packed 
one hundred boxes in an eight-hour day; some possibly do 
better. 

GRADING-LIST OF THE GRAND JUNCTION FRUIT- 
GROWERS' ASSOCIATION, GRAND JUNCTION, 
COLORADO 

Peaches 

Boxes containing 80 peaches or less extra 

Boxes containing 81 peaches to 94 90's 

Boxes containing 95 peaches to 108 108's 

All grades must be free from worms, all other defects and a 

tight pack. 

Apples 

Fancy. — Winesap, Grimes Golden, Missouri Pippin, Red 
Romanite, Geniton, and kindred varieties must be two and one- 
fourth (2 J) inches in diameter and up. Boxes of Missouri Pippins 
and Winesap must not contain to exceed 15 per cent of 2J-inch 
apples. Eighty-five per cent must be larger. Jonathans, Arkan- 
sas Black, Ben Davis, Gano, Willow Twig, Shackelford, Pear- 
main, Mammoth Black Twig, Rome Beauty, White Winter Pippin, 
Mann, Tallman Sweet, Dominie, Mcintosh, Wealthy, Steele's Red, 



300 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

Lawver, Baldwin, Huntsman, Spy, Minkler, Stark, Smith Cider, 
Walbridge, Pewaukee, Imperial, etc., two and one-half inches 
(2 J) in diameter and up. Absolutely free from worms and other 
defects. Bright and normal color. Shapely in form. 

Choice. — Should not be less than two and one-fourth (2i) 
inches in diameter, and reasonably free from worms. In other 
words, only stock a little below fancy. Throw away your trash, 
it won't pay freight. We also advise using the diamond pack. 

Summer apples. — Pack only one grade of summer apples, 
" Orchard Run," but in making this pack keep out all very small 
and wormy apples. Do not put grade mark on the box, only 
your number and variety. 

Pears 

Fancy. — Must be free from worms, smooth and of good 
shape, gross weight fifty-three pounds or more. The number 
of tiers must be stamped on the box. Four tiers should measure 
from two and three-fourths (2f) inches up. Five tiers should 
measure from two and one-fourth (2^) to two and three-fourths 
(2f). Six tiers should measure from two and one-fourth (2\) 
down, but not so small but what they will make a good heavy 
six-tier pack. 

A five-tier pear is 3-3 pack and not over 6 long, which would 
make not over 180 pears. Some growers pack 3-3 pack, but 
7 long, which makes 210 pears. This pack will be marked and 
considered six- tier. 

Choice. — This grade should consist of pears which are slightly 
scarred, otherwise defective and reasonably free from worms, not 
culls. In fact, stock that is only a little below the fancy grade. 

Plums — Prunes 

The large fancy Hungarian, Italian, Botan, Green Gage, Egg, 
etc., are put in four-basket crates, well filled, gross weight twenty- 
eight pounds or more. Small varieties, Wild Goose, Mariana, 
Damson, and the smaller plums of all varieties in two and one 
half (2|) inch boxes, well filled, gross weight eighteen pounds or 
more. 



Packing and Grading the Fruit 301 

Grapes 

Concords in eight pound climax baskets and should be well 
filled. Muscat, Rose Peru, Tokay, Purple Damascus, Black 
Hamburg, in four-basket crates, same as California, and must 
weigh twenty-eight pounds or more gross. See rule for packing 
grapes. 

Cantaloupes 

Standard crates must be packed three rows each side and five 
melons lengthwise, which will make 45 melons to the crate. 

Pony, same as standard, except six melons long which will 
make 54 melons to the crate. Cantaloupes must be carefully 
picked at least once a day. 

Put your number, variety, and grade on the upper left- 
hand CORNER OF THE BLANK END OF THE BOX. 

Any one who does not know when to pick fruit or how to pack 
it, should consult with our inspectors or their neighbors. 

To dealers: In ordering peaches by wire or letter, the dif- 
ferent grades will be known as extra, fancy, and choice. We 
guarantee our pack to grade as above, and in case they do not, 
please advise us, giving stencil number. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
MARKETING FRUIT 

Most people will no doubt be surprised to learn that the 
first successful cooperative fruit-growers' marketing asso- 
ciation in the West was established in Colorado. The 
California Fruit-growers' Exchange has eclipsed all other 
similar organizations because of the immense volume of 
business transacted, but the first real attempt at organiza- 
tion in that state was in 1893^ and the present organization 
was perfected in 1905. The Grand Junction Fruit- 
growers' Association of Grand Junction, Colorado, had its 
beginning in 1891, when a few growers agreed to ship their 
crops together and appointed one of their number manager 
of the association for the season. This arrangement con- 
tinued with varying success up to 1897, when it became 
apparent that the increased business, if no other cause, 
would necessitate employing a manager by the year, who 
would devote his entire time to the association. Ac- 
cordingly this was done, and the output has increased 
gradually, until now a million dollars' worth of business is 
done a year. 

The association idea has become thoroughly established 
throughout the entire West, and at the present time there 
are very few communities where much fruit is shipped 

^Bailey, "Cyclopedia of Agriculture." 
302 



Marketing Fruit 303 

that do not support thriving associations. That three- 
fourths of all the fruit grown in the western states is mar- 
keted through associations would be a conservative esti- 
mate; perhaps four-fifths would be more nearly correct. 
Unfortunately, however, not all of these institutions are 
worthy of the name. 

The number of fruit and produce associations in the 
various states may be summarized as follows: Colorado 
32,' Idaho 4, Montana 1, New Mexico 3, Oregon 12, Wash- 
ington 18. 

Advantages of Association 

It is well known that farmers are slow to organize and 
that many of their attempts have met with failure. It 
will be instructive, therefore, to inquire into the reason for 
successful cooperation in the West, as well as to discuss 
the advantages to the grower. 

Before the days of associations there was a time when 
all of the fruit was consumed by the home markets. Those 
were days of high prices and of prosperity. Increased 
production rapidly followed, and this necessitated that an 
outlet be found in the markets of the world. High freight 
rates, distance from markets, lack of business experience, 
lack of reputation, want of experience in packing, and 
eastern competition, were difficult problems to face and 
overcome. Only the few fruit-growers with exceptional 
business ability, who could produce or command car- 
load lots, could hope to succeed, and for the small grower 
there was little chance of success. Car-load lots must be 
the unit of shipments; and express shipments, even to-day, 
are out of question except to near-by points. All growers 
were alike at the mercy of commission men and traveling 



304 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

buyers. Under such conditions there could be no such 
thing as uniformity in grades, in packing, or in prices. 
Each grower was a law unto himself, and competition 
among neighbors was the rule. Such conditions are bad 
enough even in the vicinity of the large cities of the East, 
but when separated from the markets by hundreds of 
miles, they soon become intolerable. 

The growing of fruit is a complex and exacting business 
in itself, particularly under irrigation, and it is all that the 
average grower should attempt. If he makes a success of 
orcharding, his time will usually be fully occupied. The 
association manager has many advantages in marketing 
over the grower, some of which may be mentioned. 

The manager must have daily telegraphic reports on 
the condition of the markets. He often has a personal 
acquaintance with the buyers, and he finds it to his ad- 
vantage to make occasional trips for the purpose, even to 
distant states He may also have a system of diverting 
cars after they have been sent out of the state, and thus 
avoid a glutted market, or may send his fruit where it will 
sell to better advantage. The icing of cars can also be 
looked after properly. Associations are often the means 
of securing lower freight rates, because the hauling of sev- 
eral hundred cars is an item worth competing for. Such 
rates are, of course, open to all shippers. Buyers often 
want a number of car-loads of a certain variety and are 
willing to pay a premium if their wants can be supplied, 
and not infrequently such sales are the means of disposing 
of large quantities of the inferior varieties or grades. An 
individual is seldom in position to take advantage of such 
opportunities. Associations are successful in maintaining 



Marketing Fruit 305 

a uniform pack, and by this means they establish a reputa- 
tion for their goods. Usually the best grades of fruit are 
sold as a certain brand. The brand, which should be 
copyrighted, is sufficient guarantee for the quality, or, at 
least, it must be if the association expects to gain and hold 
a reputation. 

Supplies of various kinds, used on fruit-farms, may 
be bought at wholesale, often in car-load lots, which is an 
advantage, particularly on such items as spray and box 
materials. The prices to growers are only slightly in ex- 
cess of actual cost. It is also advantageous to keep a cer- 
tain amount of the better class of help from year to year 
and to furnish them with employment, so that a more or 
less extensive jobbing business may be conducted; not 
only is a large quantity of fruit-growers' supplies handled, 
but a wholesale business in other lines may be done, de- 
pending on the demands of the locality. 

Finally, an association can be handled more economi- 
cally than it is possible for most individuals to market 
their own fruit, unless they depend entirely on the travel- 
ing buyer, or resort to the doubtful expedient of consign- 
ing to commission men. 

Given a capable manager and a wise board of directors, 
there can be small chance of failure under our conditions. 
But men who are capable of handling 500 to 1500 cars 
of fruit at a good profit are not common, and when one 
is found, every effort should be made to retain him. 

When a capable manager is found, he should have a 
salary in proportion to the amount of business and the 
responsibility that must be carried. The latter item 
is certainly important when we consider that he may 



306 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

be responsible for a number of car-loads of a very perish- 
able product; all on the road at once. Much supervision 
on the part of the board of directors, who usually have 
small knowledge of the business, only hampers the mana- 
ger and restricts his personality. If he cannot make 
a success of the association in his own way, the advice 
or help of the directors will be of little value. A much 
better plan is to give the manager a fair chance to work 
out his own ideas, and then if he fails, try another. But 
here is the cause of most of the failures: too much super- 
vision by the directors and unjust criticism and fault- 
finding on the part of the stockholders. 

A common source of discontent is the rumor that a 
neighbor in another association has received a higher 
price for his produce, or that an outside buyer is offering 
attractive prices. Unscrupulous firms frequently adopt 
the latter method of getting consignments, only to swindle 
the grower. If there was not some decided advantage 
in buying direct from the growers, these firms would not 
go to the expense of maintaining an agent in the field when 
just as good or better fruit could be had from the as- 
sociation. 

The association idea is no longer an experiment, and 
when each one does his share to maintain the reputation 
of the fruit, and the volume of business is sufficient to 
pay expenses, there is small chance of failure. The his- 
tory of associations, the country over, shows that petty 
jealousies and distrust on the part of the members is 
a common cause of failure. 

Growers who are not members may ship through the 
association on the same terms, but they are usually re- 



Marketing Fruit 307 

quired to pay more for supplies. All of the larger con- 
cerns require both members and non-members, for whom 
they ship, to bring all their fruit to the association. 
Formerly stockholders were allowed to sell their own fruit 
by paying the association a small premium. Neither 
were objections made to members filling orders from 
near-by towns. But, as these means of disposing of 
fruit are manifestly unfair to a majority of the association 
members, they have come to be looked on with disfavor 
and in most instances are no longer allowed. 

One of the strong points in the association idea is the 
possibility of securing a fairly uniform pack. This results 
in better prices, since buyers have the assurance that all 
associations strive to make their goods as nearly uniform 
as possible. Contrary to the idea often advanced that 
poor fruit brings as great a price as good, the most rigid 
grading must be practiced, and the intention is to place 
each fruit in its proper grade; thus the best grade com- 
mands the price that it deserves, and the grower of in- 
ferior fruit is fortunate to dispose of his crop at all. 

Hood River Methods 

A system of association packing has been worked out 
in the Northwest, notably at Hood River, Oregon, that 
is giving good satisfaction under their conditions. The 
association does all the packing, but sends crews of trained 
packers to the various orchards to do the work. An 
inspector is assigned to each crew of four packers, and 
as a further assurance that honest packing shall be done, 
Ijorse-back inspectors are employed. These men drop 
in on the various crews unawares, and thus serve as a 



308 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

further check upon careless work. The management 
has gone on the idea that the very best fruit put up in 
the best way will sell itself (Fig. 97); and this has 
proved to be true. They even go so far as to hold a pack- 
ing school where men and women are trained in the art. 

All fancy apples are wrapped, and paper is placed be- 
tween each two layers in the box. They find that apples 
packed on their sides ^are more satisfactory than when 
placed with stems up, as is commonly done. Perhaps 
no other apple-growing section is so well advertised, and 
no section receives a higher average price for fruit. 

As early in the fall as estimates can be made, printed 
lists are made of the number of boxes and grades of the 
various varieties. These lists are sent to dealers in all 
parts of the United States and in Europe, and bids are 
invited. The fruit is struck off to the highest bidders, 
and if any remains unsold, lists are again sent out. Thus 
all of the fruit is sold f.o.b. Inasmuch as it sells itself, 
the manager's time is devoted largely to seeing that the 
fruit is properly picked and packed. 

Whether this method of packing will work on a much 
larger scale remains to be determined. But the attention 
to the details of picking, grading, and packing may surely 
be studied with profit by all. The idea of building up 
and holding a reputation to the point where fruit sells 
itself is certainly a good one. 

The Hood River Berry Association has found that 
by the same careful attention to details it can ship straw- 
berries to Chicago at good profit. 

The charge is often made that while these prominent 
associations in Washington and Oregon are successful in 



Marketing Fruit 309 

putting out an extremely fancy pack, this is true only 
of a comparatively small number of cars. These cars 
of fancy fruit are supposed to be used as advertising 
to promote land sales, and though sold at high prices, 
the growers actually lose money on such fruit. This, it 
is argued, must be true, as such strict grading results in 
many culls that can be marketed only at low prices. 
It is also said that the markets are flooded with the 
inferior grades, resulting in demoralized prices for all. 
The writers have investigated these charges and fail to 
find any evidence to sustain them, so far as the prominent 
associations are concerned. Statistics of fruit shipments 
from such associations as Hood River, Yakima, and Wen- 
atchee do not indicate that these localities have been 
responsible for flooding markets with fruit either good or 
bad. It must be remembered that these regions are 
comparatively new, and that while a large acreage of 
orchard has been planted, the shipments are, as yet, com- 
paratively small. It is safe to say that as soon as well- 
regulated fruit-growers' associations market the bulk. of 
the crop, we will hear less about glutted markets and de- 
moralizing effects of inferior grades of fruit. 

Methods and Results in Association Work 

There are several systems used by associations to insure 
the proper packing and grading of fruit. (1) With the 
older system the association does all the packing, usually 
at their packing houses, the growers delivering the fruit 
just as it is taken from the trees. Here the packers, 
under the direction of a superintendent, sort the fruit 
into grades, and at the same time pack it into boxes or 



310 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

crates. Should there be any culls, they are returned 
to the grower and are at his disposal. Each grower is 
given a number, which is used to designate his fruit 
throughout the season. As each box is packed, it is 
marked with his number and the grade. When the boxes 
are loaded into the cars, the number of boxes, the varieties, 
and the various grades that belong to any grower are kept 
account of and duly recorded. In this way the price for 
each box in any car is easily determined. 

(2) But when there is a large quantity of fruit to be 
shipped, it is impossible to pack at central points. This 
difficulty is commonly met by allowing the growers to 
assume the work. With this arrangement the association 
employs an inspector, whose duty it is to inspect each 
load as it is delivered. This he does by opening the 
boxes on the side, in the case of apples, when a good 
estimate of the contents may be made. If the pack is 
satisfactory, not more than two boxes may be opened. 
If unsatisfactory, several may be examined, and if all 
run under the inspector's standard, the entire load must 
either be placed in a lower grade or be repacked. It will 
be seen that a great deal depends on the inspector, and 
that it is a difficult position to fill. On him rests the 
reputation of the association, so that he must be entirely 
free to do the work as he sees fit. Each man's fruit is 
kept track of by numbers, as in the former case. 

All associations charge commission on all sales, usually 
5 per cent, to defray expenses. In case the packing is 
performed by the association, an additional charge is 
made to cover the cost of the box and packing. Any 
surplus is, of course, distributed as premiums or used in 



Marketing Fruit 311 

building up the association. Any fruit-grower may be- 
come a member of the association so long as there is stock 
for sale, and the owner of one share is entitled to all 
of its privileges. The number of shares one individual 
may own is limited. 

The growers are generally asked and, in many instances, 
required to furnish an estimate of their crop. In the 
smaller associations the manager sometimes secures this 
information by visiting the orchards in person. This 
estimate is made early in the fall, or not until damage by 
worms and other causes is practically over, and the crop 
is secure. With this knowledge in hand the manager 
can enter into contracts for delivering certain amounts of 
various varieties or grades. 

The system of selling has been radically changed within 
the past few years. Formerly, practically all the fruit 
was consigned to commission men, who, as a class, are 
inclined to do the best they can by their constituents. 
But too often the experience has been unsatisfactory. 
Not infrequently has it happened that shipments con- 
signed to a distant city have been reported as not being 
up to grade, or not in good condition, so that the market 
price could not be realized. In such cases although the 
manager may be certain that his fruit is as he represented, 
he is often unable to help himself, and must take what 
he can get. But of late years the plan of selling f.o.b. 
is being practiced more extensively, largely due to the 
organized efforts of the associations. Consignments are 
made only to well-known firms, and much of the fruit is 
sold at auction. The auction method is coming more 
and more into favor. 



312 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

But even with these arrangements difficulties arise, 
so that in order to protect themselves, the larger associa- 
tions have agents at the more important distributing 
points. It is the duty of these agents or brokers to 
inspect all cars that come into their territory, as near 
the destination as possible, and thus protect the association 
from dishonest buyers. The agent also is on hand to ad- 
just differences that arise when the fruit actually reaches 
the buyer in poor condition. 

Express shipments are made only to comparatively 
near-by points, and with such shipments the growers 
receive exactly what the fruit brings less the expressage 
and the association's commission. It is usually the early 
fruits that are expressed, but prohibitive rates prevent 
any very large amount of business being done in this 
way. 

A well-managed association is always a benefit to the 
entire community, because it builds up reputation for fruit, 
and sustains prices, inasmuch as there is little tendency, 
even among non-members, to bid one against another in 
marketing. The greatest good that an association can do 
is not to protect the grower from the buyer, but to insist 
on improved methods of all phases of orcharding so that a 
perfect product may be secured. There is never any 
difficulty in selHng fruit of the best quality; and this 
fruit can be produced only by the combined efforts of 
the growers, such as the modern association affords. 

When fruit of poor quality is abundant, as it usually 
is, indifferent packing and haphazard consignments are 
clearly the principal causes of low prices. It is idle to 
assume that prominent associations are responsible for 



Marketing Fruit 313 

these conditions. They could not do business in this 
way and continue to give satisfaction to the growers. 

John Moore, manager of the Grand Junction Fruit- 
growers' Association, in an address before the Utah Horti- 
cultural Society, sums up the causes of the difficulty in 
marketing the crop of 1908 in the following direct and, 
as we think, conclusive way. His ideas will apply to the 
general subject of marketing as well: — 

"Never before in my twelve years' experience in the 
fruit business, have I been so impressed with the necessity 
of proper marketing and distributing methods for the 
protection of the man who grows the fruit. This protec- 
tion would also include the jobber. We are in an age of 
revolution and evolution, and the unorganized and un- 
systematized mode of doing business of the past must 
give way to more modern methods. 

"I am fully convinced that the numerous partially 
organized and unsystematized institutions which are at- 
tempting to assist the grower by agreeing to load their 
fruit and ship it somewhere are a great detriment to the 
business and the growers. Last season, in my efforts to 
secure reasonable prices, I was confronted on every hand 
by the statement from jobbers with whom I was attempt- 
ing to deal, that they were being well supplied with fruit 
on a consignment basis, and as long as consignments 
could be secured they would not buy. We sold on either 
a f.o.b. or delivered basis, ehminating entirely consign- 
ments. Now, with a proper distribution of the fruits, 
there is no reason why each and every ^car cannot be sold 
at the market price, or put on the auction where it will re- 
ceive a square deal and the grower paid all that his fruit 
is worth. Could the distribution be properly controlled 
and consignments eliminated, glutted markets would be 
rare. There are always, in nearly every market, dealers 
who will encourage consignments to their markets, when 



314 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

if they had to put up the money for the fruit, they would 
be very careful that an oversupply did not obtain. This 
condition can be controlled by the growers, and if every 
fruit-growing locality would create and properly conduct 
an association on a square and modern basis, I fully believe 
that returns could be very materially increased. 

'^ This would require an outlay of some expense to the 
growers, but at the same time would really be an invest- 
ment. If you knew that by purchasing a certain kind of 
machine for twenty-five dollars you could, by proper 
handling, decrease your orchard expenses one hundred 
dollars a year, would you hesitate to make the purchase ? 
Well, as an association is a machine, each grower a part 
of that machine, and if kept in good running condition 
and handled by a man who knows how, it will produce 
results ; therefore I claim that improper marketing was 
one of the greatest factors affecting the price of fruit 
in 1908. 

'^ During the past year the larger fruit-producing sec- 
tions were confronted with the proposition of marketing 
the largest crop ever produced. Georgia, that immense 
producer of peaches, was compelled to handle, with her 
crude and unsystematized methods, the largest crop in her 
history, with the result that out of the five thousand car- 
loads, about two thousand were shipped to one market, 
and the results to the growers on account of poor distri- 
bution were disastrous. California produced nearly twice 
as many cars of fruit as were shipped in 1907, and many 
other fruit districts were ill prepared to properly handle 
the quantity produced. 

" The deciduous fruit season which has just closed will 
go down in history as the heaviest ever known, yet it is 
my opinion that the quantity was not the prime cause 
of low prices, as I believe under normal conditions and 
proper distribution, with careful attention to high quality, 
an equal production could be placed in the hands of con- 
sumers at reasonably good prices and profit to the growers. 



Marketing Fruit 315 

" With increased production more care must be given 
to the quaUty and packing. Every car of inferior fruit 
carelessly packed and placed on the market will tend to 
decrease the value of the fancy stock, and to such an 
extent that growers who are anxious to get something out 
of inferior fruit will be the losers considerably more than 
the profits realized from such sales." 

District Organizations 

Now that local associations have become established 
institutions, there yet remains to be organized a combina- 
tion of associations, as has been accomplished by the 
California citrus fruit-growers. State associations would 
perhaps not meet the wants of the inter-mountain region 
so well as district organizations, since the fruit-growing 
localities are widely separated and their conditions are 
diverse. It is true that the managers now work together 
to some extent, but they all agree that a much closer union 
would be desirable. 

Not only would our fruit become better known and 
better prices result by such union, but economy in many 
lines would be effected. If one man could have super- 
vision of the sales of all associations, in a given section, 
the last trace of local competition would be eliminated. 
The railroads, as well as the large dealers, could be dealt 
with to much better advantage by one man representing 
a group of associations than by a number of men repre- 
senting the divided interests of several. In the buying 
of supplies one man could not only do the work economi- 
cally, but he would be able to secure much better rates. 
The same line of argument would hold for all phases of 
association management. 



316 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

The time is not yet ripe, perhaps, for such an organiza- 
tion, but it is fast approaching. It is safe to say that the 
complete control of the market situation, to which the 
fruit-growers of the western states are entitled, will be 
realized only when such a combination is effected. 

How to form an Association 

The method of forming an association is simple. The 
success of an association depends more on the manager 
than on all else, and no pains should be spared to secure 
the right man. The mere fact that a man has been suc- 
cessful in selling shoes or some other staple commodity is 
not necessarily an indication that he would be equally 
successful in association management. Now that this 
method of selling fruit has become firmly established, 
there should be no difficulty in securing men who have 
had considerable experience. Above all the manager 
should be allowed to conduct the affairs of the association 
in his own way, for if he knows anything at all about such 
business, he will usually have the advantage of the ma- 
jority of directors. The following constitution and by- 
laws may be used as a guide, and they will be found to 
contain all that is essential. 



BY-LAWS OF THE GRAND JUNCTION FRUIT-GROWERS' 
ASSOCIATION 



The name of the said Association shall be the Grand Junction 
Fruit-growers' Association. 



Marketing Fruit 317 



II 

The objects for which the said Association is created are to 
buy and sell fruit, vegetables, hogs, meat stock, and all the prod- 
ucts of Mesa County, both fresh and manufactured; to erect, 
operate, and maintain canning and packing factories and com- 
mission houses; to manufacture any and all products of Mesa 
County; to lease, mortgage, and sell said business, and to borrow 
money for carrying on the same, and to pledge their property 
and franchise for such purpose. To acquire by purchase, or 
otherwise, and own real estate, buildings, machinery, and all the 
necessary power and power plants for carrying on said premises, 
and to lease, mortgage, and sell the same. 

Ill 

The term of existence of said Association shall be twenty 
years. 

IV 

The capital stock of the said Association shall be twenty-five 
thousand dollars, divided into five thousand shares of five dollars 
each. 

V 

The number of Directors of said Association shall be seven, 
and the names of those who shall manage the affairs of the Asso- 
ciation for the first year of its existence are C. W. Steele, A. A. 
Miller, J. W. Rose, R. W. Shropshire, J. H. Smith, P. A. Rice, 
and A. B. Hoyt. 

VI 

The principal office of said Association shall be kept at Grand 
Junction in the said county, and the principal business of said 
Association shall be carried on in said county of Mesa. 

VII 

The stock of said Association shall be non-assessable. 



318 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



VIII 

The Directors shall have power to make such prudential By- 
Laws as they may deem proper for the management of the affairs 
of the Association not inconsistent with the laws of this State, 
for the purpose of carrying on all kinds of business within the 
objects and purposes of the Association. 



BY-LAWS 
Article I 

Section 1. The Board of Directors provided for in the articles 
of incorporation of this Association shall be elected annually at 
the regular annual meeting of the stockholders, as hereinafter 
provided, and shall hold their office until their successors are 
elected and qualified. 

Section 2. Said Directors shall be stockholders in said Asso- 
ciation and shall be fruit-growers in Grand Valley and shall be 
residents of Mesa county, Colorado. 

Section 3. Any vacancy occurring in the Board of Directors 
shall be filled by the remaining members of the Board. 

Article II 

Section 1. The Board of Directors shall, as soon as may be, 
after their election, elect a President and Vice-President from 
among their number, who shall hold their offices for one year, and 
at said meeting the said Board shall appoint a Secretary, Treasurer, 
and Manager, who shall be subject to removal at any time. 

Section 2. The Secretary, Treasurer, and Manager shall each, 
when required by the Board, give bond in such sum and with 
such security as the Directors may require, conditioned on the 
faithful performance of their duties, and to turn over to their 
successors in office all books, papers, vouchers, money, funds, and 
property of whatsoever kind or nature belonging to the Associa- 
tion, upon the expiration of their respective terms of office, or 



Marketing Fruit 319 

upon their being removed therefrom, or with such other condi- 
tions as may be proper. 

Section 3. The President shall preside at all meetings of the 
Directors or Stockholders. He shall sign as President all certifi- 
cates of stock, and all other contracts and other instruments in 
writing, which may have been ordered by the Board of Directors. 

Section 4. The Vice-President shall, in the absence of or dis- 
ability of the President, perform his duties. 

Section 5. The Manager shall have full charge of the com- 
mercial and shipping department of the Association. He shall 
receive all money arising from the sale of fruit and other com- 
modities handled by the Association, and pay the same to the 
parties entitled thereto, and render a true account thereof; and 
he shall also be the Treasurer of this Association and safely keep 
all money belonging to the Association, and disburse the same 
under the direction of the Board of Directors, except as herein 
above set forth. 

Section 6. The Secretary shall keep a record of the proceed- 
ings of the Board of Directors and also of the meetings of the 
Stockholders. He shall also keep a book of blank certificates of 
stock,' fill up and countersign all certificates issued, and make 
the corresponding entries upon the marginal stub of each certifi- 
cate issued. He shall keep a stock ledger in due form, showing 
the number of shares issued to and transferred by any stockholder 
and date of issuance and transfer. He shall have charge of the 
corporate seal and affix the same to all instruments requiring a 
seal. He shall keep in the manner prescribed by the Board of 
Directors all accounts of the Association with its stockholders, in 
books provided for such purpose. He shall discharge such other 
duties as pertain to his office, and as may be prescribed by the 
Board of Directors. 

Section 7. These By-Laws may be amended by the Board of 
Directors at any special meeting thereof called for that purpose, 
a notice of such proposed amendment being given in the call for 
such special meeting. 



320 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



Article III 

Section 1. The regular meetings of the Board of Directors 
shall be held at the office of the Company, on the first (1st) day 
of each month, except when the first day comes on Sunday or 
legal holiday, then on the following day. 

Special meetings of the Board of Directors may be called by 
the President when he may deem it expedient or necessary, or by 
the Secretary, upon the request of any three members of said 
Board. 

Section 2. A majority of the Board of Directors shall consti- 
tute a quorum for the transaction of business, but a less number 
may adjourn from day to day upon giving notice to absent mem- 
bers of the said Board of such adjournment. 

Section 3. The Board of Directors shall have power: — 

First. To call special meetings of the stockholders whenever 
they deem it necessary, by publishing a notice of such meeting 
once a week for two weeks next preceding such meeting in some 
newspaper published in Grand Junction, Colorado. 

Second. To appoint and remove at pleasure all employees 
and agents of the Association, prescribe their duties, where the 
same have not been prescribed by the By-Laws of the Associa- 
tion, fix their compensation, and when they deem it necessary, 
to require security for the faithful performance of their respective 
duties. 

Third. To make such rules and regulations not inconsistent 
with the laws of the State of Colorado, and Articles of Incorpora- 
tion, or the By-Laws of the Association, for the guidance of the 
officers and the management of the affairs of the Association. 

Fourth. To incur such indebtedness as they may deem neces- 
sary for carrying out the objects and purposes of the Association 
and to authorize the President and Secretary to make the note 
of the Association, with which to raise money to pay such in- 
debtedness. 

Section 4. It shall be the duty of the Board of Directors: — ■ 

First. To be caused to be kept a complete record of all their 
meetings and acts, and also the proceedings of the stockholders. 



Marketing Fruit 321 

present full statements at the regular annual meetings of the 
stockholders, showing in detail the assets and liabilities of the 
Association, and the condition of its affairs in general. 

Second. To supervise all acts of the officers and employees, 
require the Secretary, Treasurer, and Manager to keep full and 
accurate books of account of their respective business. 

Article IV 

Section 1. At the regular meeting in the month of January 
of each year the Directors shall declare such dividends upon the 
capital stock, to all the stockholders then appearing on record, as 
may be warranted by the net earnings of the Association for the 
preceding year. 

Article V 

Section 1. The Board of Directors may, whenever they shall 
deem it necessary, place on sale so much of the capital stock of 
the Association as may be necessary to raise funds for the pur- 
pose of carrying out the objects and purposes of the organization 
of the Association, such stock to be sold only upon the following 
conditions : — 

First. That not more than three hundred (300) shares thereof 
be sold to any one person, firm, or association of persons. 

Second. That such stock be sold only to fruit-growers in 
Grand Valley. 

Third. That such stock be sold at not less than par value of 
Five Dollars ($5) per share. 

Article VI 

Section 1. The Annual meeting of the stockholders for the 
election of Directors shall be held on the third (3d) Saturday in 
January of each year, but if, for any reason, it should not be 
held on such day, it may then be held on any day subsequent 
thereto, as hereinafter provided. 

Section 2. The Board of Directors shall be elected by the 
stockholders at the regular Annual meeting. Public notice of the 
time and place of holding such annual meeting and election shall 



322 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

be published not less than ten (10) days previous thereto, in some 
newspaper of general circulation printed in Grand Junction and 
the said election shall be made by such of the stockholders as 
shall attend for that purpose, either in person or by proxy, pro- 
vided a majority of the outstanding stock is represented. If a 
majority of the outstanding stock shall not be represented, such 
meeting may be adjourned by the stockholders present for a 
period not exceeding sixty (60) days. All elections shall be by 
ballot, and each stockholder shall be entitled to as many votes as 
he or she owns shares of stock in said Association; provided, 
however, that no person who is not himself a stockholder shall 
be allowed to represent by proxy any stockholder in the said 
Association. 

The persons receiving the greatest number of votes shall be 
the Directors for the ensuing year, and until their successors are 
elected and qualified. 

Article VII 

Section 1. Certificates of stock may be transferred at any 
time by the holders thereof, or by attorney in fact or legal repre- 
sentatives. Such transfer shall be made by indorsement on the 
certificate of stock and surrender of the same; provided, such 
transfer shall not be valid until the same shall have been noted 
in the proper form on the books of the Association. The surren- 
dered certificates shall be canceled before a new certificate in 
lieu thereof shall be issued, and no transfer of any share of stock 
shall be valid or allowed upon the books of the Association upon 
which any deferred payments are due and unpaid, or which has 
not been sold and transferred in accordance with the provisions 
of the By-Laws of the Association. 

Section 2. Any stockholder desiring to dispose of his stock in 
said Association shall deposit the same with the Secretary of the 
Association, and the same shall be sold by the said Secretary at 
not less than par for account of such stockholder, within sixty (60) 
days from date of such deposit, under the restriction of Section 1, 
Article V, of these By-Laws : provided, that if the Secretary shall 
not have sold such stock at the expiration of sixty days, then 



Marketing Fruit 323 

such stock may be returned to such stockholder, and be disposed 
of by him, without restriction or hmitation by the Association. 

Article VIII 

Section 1. All members of this Association are required to 
market all their fruit through the Association and bear their pro- 
portionate share of the expenses of handling the same. 

Section 2. Any member may have the privilege of selling his 
own fruit at the orchard, but no sales of fruit shall be made to a 
dealer in fruit, or to any person who buys to ship outside the 
county. In case of the sale of the entire crop of any particular 
fruit or fruits, by reporting the same to the Association, one-half 
(^) only of the regular commission will be charged. 

Section 3. Any member having any grievance or cause of 
complaint as to treatment of his fruit by the Association can 
appeal to the Board of Directors, whose decision shall be final. 

Section 4. All members must pack their fruit for shipping in 
a neat and workman-like manner, and pack the same in standard- 
sized packages, as adopted and in general use by the Association, 
having placed thereon their name or number. 

Article IX 

Section 1. A purchaser of stock in this, the Grand Junction 
Fruit-growers' Association, shall hereafter receive of the profits 
of the Association, in proportion to the money he has invested. 



CHAPTER XIX 

FROST INJURIES, SECONDARY BLOOM, AND FROST 
PROTECTION 

The value of knowing what can be expected of frosted 
bloom, or fruit, just set, and second-crop bloom is realized 
only when one grasps the significance of the early spraying 
in a successful fight against the codlin-moth. Many 
times a crop of fruit that would have brought the owner 
profitable returns, if cared for, has been lost because the 
grower at first thought it would not be worth spraying. 
Omit the first spraying in an orchard bearing a partial 
crop, and it practically means the loss of the crop no 
matter how thorough the later applications of poison 
may be. The seasons of 1907 and 1908 in the inter- 
mountain West afforded excellent opportunities for the 
observing fruit-grower to educate himself on these points, 
but perhaps the opportunity has passed some persons 
unnoticed. 

From the observations of these two seasons we may say 
that it is almost impossible to state at just what tem- 
perature injury takes place, for other factors besides 
temperature have a part in determining the extent of 
injury. While much time was given to the collection 
of data, as to minimum temperatures and amount of 
damage at particular times and in particular localities, 

324 



Frost Injuries and Protection, Secondary Bloom 325 

the assembled information leads to no conclusions. Few 
fruit-growers have standard thermometers, and reports 
can hardly be comparable; the temperature varies in 
surprisingly small areas and fluctuates rapidly, and 
minimum readings often mean little so far as portraying 
true conditions is concerned. 

In a general way, it may be said that little injury to 
fruit or blossoms occurs before the temperature falls 
below 28° and remains there for some length of time. 
Peach buds far -enough advanced to show the pink in 
the tips have safely passed through nights when the 
mercury fell to 21°, and in other cases a higher tempera- 
ture has injured apples in the same stage. It is probable 
that in the latter case the freeze was of longer duration. 
Peaches fertilized and large enough to fill the "husk," 
which surrounds them while young, have escaped unin- 
jured, while the open bloom on apple trees not ten feet 
away was killed outright. One cannot read the ther- 
mometer and tell with assurance whether the crop is lost or 
not, but within twenty-four hours after the freeze one 
who knows how may easily estimate the extent of the 
injury. 

The Kinds of Frost Injuries 

Frost Russet. — The light frost often leaves marks that 
the fruit carries to maturity, an injury spoken of as '^ frost 
russet." On the mature fruit these marks of early injury 
take various fantastic forms. Often it appears as a band 
about the center of the fruit, as shown in Figure 87, or it 
may appear as a russet area at either the calyx or stem end. 
The position seems to differ with varieties. That shown 
in the figure is Chenango (Strawberry) apple. Unless 



326 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

severe, the markings do not necessarily injure the fruit, 
but marked fruit can hardly be graded strictly fancy. 
When the injury is confined to a light mark in the calyx 
end, the fruit is often allowed to go into the fancy pack. 
Evaporation seems to take place rapidly through this 
cork, russeted surface, and fruit like that shown in the 
figure has a decided tendency to wilt. 

The russet is more evenly distributed over the entire 
surface of pears, a condition that is decidedly objection- 
able in such clear-skinned varieties as 
the Bartlett. It detracts greatly from 
their beauty when ripened. 

Frost Blisters. — An injury to the 
foliage commonly called " frost blister" 
is shown in Figure 88. On close ex- 
amination these crinkled leaves show 
separation of the upper and lower sur- 
FiG. 87. — Frost Rus- faces, with numerous cracks on the 
ppe. lower side. Their curled appearance 

or their yellowing up and falling off in midsummer often 
alarms the fruit-grower, who does not know the origin of 
the trouble. The figure shows that only the first leaves 
are affected, and while it may be a temporary check to 
the tree, the effect is not lasting. 

Injury to Buds or Bloom. — Under this head it is pro- 
posed to discuss fatal and retrievable injury to buds or 
bloom, and try to explain what indicates fatality. It 
very often happens that a bud is killed before it opens, yet 
it will expand and will shed its petals as a normal bloom. 
Fatal injury to buds may be easily detected by splitting 
them with a sharp knife and examining the organs inside. 




Frost Injuries and Protection, Secondary Bloom 327 



A discoloration of the central part of the bud indicates 
fatal injury. When the individual flower-buds are well 
swollen, — open enough to show the color of the petals, — ■ 
the removal of the petals will disclose signs of fatal injury 
in the darkened pistils (the five central organs in the apple 
or pear flower and the 
central organ in the 
peach or plum bud). 
Such buds may open and 
appear to be normal to 
the casual observer, but 
they do not produce fruit. 
Internal injury to blos- 
soms, especially after fer- 
tilization takes place, is 
not always fatal, nor is 
the percentage of fatal- 
ity so easily ascertained; 
flowers injured to a cer- 
tain extent after fertiliz- 
ation takes place may 
continue to develop and 
mature fruit. ^'^- ^^- " ^'°'* ^^''^^' °^ ^pp^" ^'^^• 

What interests the grower is, how to determine how 
much he may depend on bloom so injured. Peach, plum, 
or cherry blossoms, frozen to the extent that discoloration 
appears in the basal part of the pistils, seldom if ever set 
fruit. In the apple the discoloration may show in the 
minute seed, and yet the fruit will develop to maturity, 
but no doubt only when the bloom has been previously 
fertilized. Blooms of the apple showing injury outside 




328 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

the seed cavities do not mature fruit; they may continue 
to develop for some time, but nearly always fall before the 
calyx closes. In this case, fatal injury is first indicated by 
a yellowing of the tissues about the stem end, the color 
appearing in time to indicate whether it will pay to spray. 

When the injury ap- 
pears only in the em- 
bryo seed, the fruit may 
mature without seed, 
and may generally be 
picked out at maturity 
on account of its smaller 
size. 

Pear bloom may still 
mature fruit when 
showing more injury 
than the apple. The 
whole core cavity may 
be discolored without 
fatal results. The type 
of fruit from such a 

Fig. 89. — Abnormal Pears, the Result of bloom is shown in 
Injury by Frost. p-^^^^ gg ^^pp^^ ^^.^.^ 

attached to spur). While abnormal in shape, it has de- 
veloped to maturity. 

Injury to Young Fruit. — The various fruits differ in 
their abihty to recover from severe freezing, and it is 
important that the grower know what to expect. When 
injury and discoloration are confined within the pit cavity, 
the peach, cherry, apricot, and plum may continue to de- 
velop until near the normal ripening period. The fruit 




Frost Injuries and Protection, Secondary Bloom 329 

may appear to be normal until the uninjured specimens 
begin to swell rapidly at the beginning of the ripening 
period, and then the injured fruit begins to fail, shows 
gummy exudations, and ripens abnormally, or drops be- 
fore ripening. When the injury is more extensive, the 
fruit rarely shows any tendency to mature, usually drop- 
ping in a short time. 

Apples frozen after the bloom has fallen show little 
more tendency to recovery than does the bloom itself. 
Injury that extends outside the seed 
cavities proves fatal, and while the fruit 
may continue to develop for some time, 
the yellow color of the flesh at the stem 
end soon indicates that the fruit is 
doomed. Some growers contend that 
discoloration of the flesh does not neces- 
sarily mean death, but they base their 
opinion on a hasty examination of the Fig. 90. — Longitu- 
fruit at the time of the freeze, not ^^^^^ Section of 

' Frozen Bartlett 

realizmg what a small percentage of pear. 
uninjured fruit it takes to make a fair 
crop. They find later that they have a good crop, when 
they thought it all gone, and they conclude that it must have 
recovered; as a matter of fact, the crop undoubtedly rep- 
resents the uninjured part. Death of the seeds does not 
necessarily mean death to the fruit. As compared with 
the normal specimens, the seedless specimens are a little 
smaller, and in some cases we observe a slightly shortened 
axis. 

The injured fruit of the pear, like the bloom, makes a 
remarkable recovery from frost injury. When the seeds 




330 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



alone are injured, the fruit matures and in most cases can- 
not be distinguished from the normal specimens. When 
the injury extends outside the seed cavity, the fruit may 
mature, but be abnormal in shape. Figure 90 shows a 
longitudinal section of a frozen Bartlett. Notice the black 
spot, the deadened core near the calyx; development has 
taken place in the part that should normally have been 

the neck. Fruit injured in 
this way may easily be dis- 
tinguished by its square, thick 
form. Figure 91 shows a 
comparison of a normal and 
frozen Anjou pear, indicative 
that the form of the pear 
which normally has a short 
neck is the more abnormal 
when injured by frost. Such 
abnormal fruit cannot be con- 
sidered fancy, but in most varieties is worth saving. 

Discoloration of the tissues must extend well out toward 
the surface of the young pear before it can be pronounced 
dead, but when frozen to the extent that it results in 
blistering of the skin, it may be expected to perish. 




Fig. 91. — Anjou Pears. The 
Smaller injured by Frost 
when Young. 



Second-crop Bloom 

The destruction of the first crop of bloom by frost is 
often followed, especially in the apple and pear, by the 
throwing out of a second crop of bloom; and the question 
is often asked what can be expected of this bloom. The 
grower is often at a loss to know whether the trees are 
worth spraying or not. 



Frost Injuries and Protection , Secondary Bloom 331 



In the apple we have three types of second-crop bloom. 
One common abnormal type of bloom is that springing 
from the axil of a leaf on a normal spur after the early 
bloom has been killed by frost. This bloom will set and 
mature fruit, provided the ripening season of the variety 
is well within the season of the particular locality; fruit 
from such bloom is 
usually later and re- 
quires an extension 
of the season in 
which to develop. 
Figure 92 shows a 
mature Chenango 
(Strawberry) apple 
from such bloom, 
not over a week 
later in maturing 
than that from 
normal bloom. As 
the fruit generally 
develops within a 
week after that 
from the earlier bloom, in our lower altitudes most varieties 
will mature a crop from all late bloom. 

Small-fruits set from a second type of late yoom, shown 
in Figure 93, which is a fruit-spur forced from the larger 
limbs and even from the trunk. While such bloom often 
occurs in normal years, the amount is apparently multi- 
plied by the destruction of the earlier bloom. This type of 
late bloom seems to terminate growth that should normally 
havebeenawatersprout; in fact, the growth shown in the 




Fig. 92. 



Mature Chenango from Second- 
crop Bloom. 



332 



Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 



figure as springing from the axil of a leaf below the fruit 
does often assume the proportions of a watersprout. Such 
bloom will set and mature fruit, and is well worth con- 
sidering in connection with other late bloom. 

A third type of late bloom terminates rather long growth 
of the previous season. On first starting, these buds 




Fig. 93. 



From Second-crop Bloom arising from Large Limbs or 
Tree Trunks. 



would be taken for terminal leaf -buds. With the destruc- 
tion of the earlier bloom they develop the normal number 
of flowers carried by a fruit-spur. This type of spur is 
not very common, nor is it easily distinguished from the 
normal fruit-spur, but its development seems to depend 
on the loss of the early bloom, and it should, no doubt, 
be classed as abnormal. In spite of the fact that some 
horticultural writings give the impression that apples do 
not bear from axillary fruit-buds, such is a common occur- 



Frost Injuries and Protection, Secondary Bloom 333 

rence under our conditions. As these buds open a trifle 
later than terminal buds and, as the development of the 
flowers and fruit from them seems to be augmented by 
the destruction of the early bloom, they may be classed 
as second-crop bloom. Many of these buds produce fruit 
when all the bloom from normal terminal buds is killed. 
The production of fruit from axillary buds, however, is 
not limited to years when other bloom is killed. Many 
of our most productive varieties bear this way annually. 
Figure 12 shows a Jonathan twig of two seasons' growth 
bearing seven fancy apples on wood of the previous sea- 
son's growth, or from axillary fruit-buds. This branch 
was taken from a twelve-year-old tree bearing approxi- 
mately two boxes of fruit, all from either this type of 
bloom or from the type of secondary bloom as the fruit 
shown in Figure 92 has developed from. 

In the pear there is one type of late bloom, that arising 
from the side of normal spurs. Figure 89 pictures a spur 
of the Bartlett pear bearing a fruit from a normal bloom 
and two from these late blooms (two fruits below). A 
close examination of the larger fruit will show a puckering 
about the calyx, an indication that the fruit has been in- 
jured by frost. The figure shows what can be expected 
from such bloom. Fruit from second-crop bloom will 
mature, but, while of normal flavor, such bloom cannot be 
depended on for fancy fruit. It is nearly always rough 
and irregular. As with the apples, some varieties of pear 
throw axillary bloom that is a few days later; but the de- 
velopment does not depend on the destruction of the 
earlier bloom. Other types of late bloom have not been 
observed in the pear. Unless plentiful late bloom in the 



334 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

pear produces fruit that is hardly worth the effort required 
to keep it free from worms. 

Forecast of the Probable Crop 

Whether to spray or not to spray for codlin-moth the 
grower must decide, after ascertaining all the facts. Trees 
should be carefully examined, both top and bottom, and 
a decision rendered with care; especially if it is likely 
to be negative. Remember that only a small percentage 
of a heavy crop of bloom will make a fair crop of fruit. 
Give the fruit the benefit of the doubt and spray before it 
is too late; omitting the first spraying has brought grief 
'to many a box of fruit. With the apple especially a fair 
proportion of the late bloom may be depended on to ma- 
ture fruit, and if it is to be saved, will necessitate an addi- 
tional spraying to supply the calyxes with poison. 

FROST PROTECTION 

While the occasional loss of a fruit-crop from untimely 
frosts is considered in nearly every fruit section as one of 
the risks of the business, the loss or partial loss of two crops 
in succession arouses the fruit-grower to serious specula- 
tion of the possibilities of frost-fighting. With a method 
of frost prevention proved to be adequate and practicable, 
provision for the protection of the orchard should always 
be considered and the paraphernalia regarded as an indis- 
pensable adjunct to orchard equipment. The owner of a 
ten-acre orchard thinks nothing of investing four hundred 
dollars in a spraying machine. He might spend an equal 
amount for frost protection; it would be cheap insurance 



Frost Injuries and Protection, Secondary Bloom 335 

on a crop valued at an equal figure per acre; and without 
such insurance high prices for orchard land cannot prevail. 
It is true that serious injury by frost may not occur in 
many years, but it behooves the grower to be prepared. 

Many devices and methods have been suggested and 
tried by the orchardist in an attempt to protect fruit from 
damaging late spring frosts. It is the purpose here to set 
forth the merits of the various systems, giving opinions 
based on previous publications, personal observations, and 
the experience of careful and observing growers. 

Natural Protection 

When the extent of the damage done by a recent frost 
is the subject of discussion, there is no commoner expression 
than that of surprise at the ^'spottedness" of the freeze 
or, in other words, the great variation in amount of dam- 
age done in different parts of some very limited area. 
Nothing arouses more contention among the growers than 
the question of the immunity of their respective localities 
from damaging frosts. Rivalry akin to malice is based on 
differences purely imaginary, for the escape of a particular 
locality can, in many cases, be attributed to conditions 
that are likely to be reversed another year. We have seen 
growers stand about the exhibition tables at the county 
fair and with satisfied pride point out their exhibits to a 
less fortunate neighbor and tell him how it happened that 
they had fruit when he had none. They talked knowingly 
of air-currents, and how the peculiar location of their 
orchard was such that it could never freeze out. And we 
have seen the same men one year later forced to listen to a 
similar exposition by the now more fortunate and equally 



336 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

visionary neighbor. Something went wrong; the air-cur- 
rents failed to work. 

The degree to which any locality suffers is, in many cases, 
a matter of chance. Mountainous sections are noted for 
their varieties of climate, and it is not uncommon to find 
localities differing very little in altitude and not over ten 
miles apart, showing a variation in season of blooming of 
almost as many days. So while one locality may be caught 
at a critical time one year and a neighboring locality 
escapes, it very "often happens that the experiences are 
reversed the following spring. Yet we know that there is 
such a thing as natural protection; and there are localities 
that seldom suffer from untimely frosts. 

One of the most reliable means of natural protection is 
that furnished by canon breezes. Orchards in narrow val- 
leys often escape injuries from frost, as the currents of air 
flowing down from higher altitudes keep the air moving, 
and thus prevent the settling of the colder air. Proximity 
to high bluffs that absorb a large amount of heat from the 
sun in the day and give it off gradually at night is also 
considered to be valuable protection. Orchards border- 
ing on open areas, as desert land, are often only slightly 
injured, while those surrounded by other orchards suffer 
severely. The escape of the orchard on the border is ap- 
parently due to a better circulation of air. Low spots 
surrounded in the greater part by higher elevations are 
more often visited by untimely frosts, while ridges sur- 
rounded by lower levels are more exempt. These few 
factors account in part for the '^spottedness" of frosts, 
but there are some variations that these factors will not 
account for. The grower who harvests a good crop one 



Frost Injuries and Protection, Secondary Bloom 337 

year while his neighbor has none may save himself no little 
embarrassment, should fortune turn another season, by 
not assuming a boastful altitude. And, furthermore, he 
must not be too sure that he can attribute success in saving 
a fruit-crop to some particular step in the cultural manage- 
ment of the orchard. While the only visible difference in 
the management of two orchards is that one grower waters 
in the fall and the other does not, a failure of one orchard 
does not necessarily mean that the system of watering is at 
fault. 

Retarding the Blooming Period 

Various plans of retarding the blooming period have 
been tried, but at most they only delay blooming a few 
days, while the fruit-crop may be in danger for as many 
weeks. Mulching the ground about the trees in late winter 
to retain the frost has had little if any effect as far as re- 
tarding the blooming of the tree is concerned. Experi- 
ments in whitewashing the trees from top to bottom and 
maintaining this coating throughout the winter and early 
spring have given varied results, but in no case has the 
practice retarded the blooming season enough to give 
promise of any great benefits. Some growers have 
omitted the late fall watering and have withheld water 
in the spring until after the blooming period, in fact until 
the trees actually suffered, yet in the past two seasons 
these orchards have suffered as much as those watered in 
the fall. 

The Use of Water in fighting Frost 

Water has been used in various ways in fighting frost, 
but in most cases it has either proved impracticable or 



338 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

inadequate. While spraying the plants would no doubt 
prove effective and practicable in the case of the flower-bed, 
it would not be practicable as a means of protecting the 
orchard. Various plans have been employed for evaporat- 
ing water into the air with the idea of holding the dew- 
point above the freezing-point, but in the dry climates, 
where the dew-point is normally far below the freezing- 
point, such means of frost-fighting would avail little. 

Irrigation, like smudging, is an effective method of 
frost-fighting when only a few degrees of frost may be ex- 
pected, but it does not meet the requirements in most 
places. When the grower is not prepared in any other way 
to protect his orchard, it may be worth his while to turn 
on the irrigation water. In doing this, however, he runs 
the risk of forcing undue growth which may be more easily 
injured by later frosts; and when once the water is turned 
on, it generally puts a stop to all other means of frost- 
fighting. It is almost impossible to work where irrigation- 
water is running. The orchardist is to be warned that 
irrigation will not avert injury from heavy frosts. In the 
case of the strawberry-bed and garden crops, irrigation is 
often a simple and eflacient means of protection. 

Smudging 

Fighting frost by means of smudges has long been in use, 
and while it has not always proved effective, it has many 
advocates. The philosophy of smudging is to prevent the 
radiation of heat from the ground by maintaining a blanket 
of smoke over the area to be protected. In other words, 
the idea is artificially to provide the protection of a cloudy 
night. This cloud of smoke is provided by burning vari- 



Frost Injuries and Protection, Secondary Bloom 339 

ous materials; as, stable manure, leaves, baled hay or 
straw, or in fact anything that will allow of the blaze being 
easily controlled to give rise to a dense smoke. Within 
certain limits such means of protection is successful, but 
when more than five or six degrees of frost occurs, the 
smoke and the small amount of heat given off by the burn- 
ing of the smudges does not afford sufficient protection. 
Moreover, smudge material is difficult to secure in large 
quantity, and the supply too often gives out at the critical 
time. 

The failure of smudging under conditions in which we 
would expect it to be successful can be attributed, no 
doubt, to half-hearted work, failure to begin before the 
danger point is reached, or lack of concerted action. Al- 
though the fruit districts of the inter-mountain states, iso- 
lated valleys as they are, seem to furnish ideal areas under 
which to demonstrate the value of smudging, it must be 
said that after thorough trial under existing conditions 
(isolated orchards, extremes of temperature, and the lack 
of suitable smudge material) it does not meet the require- 
ments of frost-fighting. In lack of other protection, how- 
ever, the grower should not give up, for faithful smudg- 
ing is a failure only in the case of an extreme drop in 
temperature. 

The fires should be started before the danger point is 
reached, and the cloud of smoke maintained until the sun 
is well up, or until the temperature rises above the freez- 
ing-point. The smoke screens the frozen plants from the 
sun's rays and prevents rapid thawing out, which is as 
detrimental as freezing. 



340 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

Heating the Orchard 

Undaunted by the failures of other methods, progressive 
fruit-growers have endeavored to demonstrate that it is 
possible and practicable to avert frost injury by actually 
raising the temperature of the air, by means of burning 
suitable fuel in small fires about the orchard, either in 
small piles upon the ground or in orchard heaters designed 
for the purpose. While many persons have been inclined 
to doubt the feasibility of heating '^ all-out-doors," it has 
been well demonstrated that fruit-crops may be saved by 
practical means of heating the orchard during the bloom- 
ing period, even when the temperature falls as low as 20°. 

This means of frost-fighting was probably first tried in 
a large way in California, in protecting the citrus fruit- 
crops from frost in the months of December, January, and 
February. In deciduous fruit-orchards it was probably 
first tried in Colorado in the spring of 1908. The results 
were so encouraging that great interest has been aroused 
in the designing and manufacturing of orchard heaters 
and in attempts to demonstrate the efiiciency of the 
various patterns. Some of the most promising styles are 
shown in Figure 94. The writers have had many oppor- 
tunities to study the behavior of these orchard heaters 
in actual tests, and much interesting information has 
been gathered, which may prove of practical value when 
assembled. 

Fuels. — With the oil fields close at hand, it is natural 
that the California fruit-growers should favor the use of 
oil in heating the orchard. Possibly the only objection 
to its use in protecting the citrus fruit-crop in California 




Fig. 94. 



342 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

is the deposit of soot left on the almost mature fruit. This 
defect does not enter into the discussion in deciduous 
fruit-growing sections, where the fires are needed only 
during the blooming period or shortly after the fruit is 
set; practically all trace of the deposit disappears before 
the fruit is picked. Even in California this objectionable 
feature could be partially overcome by choosing an oil 
burner that would consume the fuel more perfectly than 
the one now commonly used in the citrus orchards. Cali- 
fornia growers have used crude petroleum, which can be 
purchased at the wells at a lower price than coal. In 
many fruit sections the conditions would be reversed. 

Coal has been used in California, but with rather un- 
satisfactory results. California growers have given out 
the impression that it is possible to raise the temperature 
only four or five degrees with coal. The fact that Cali- 
fornia growers have tried to burn coal in an unsatisfactory 
burner is no doubt responsible for this false impression as 
to its heating value. This California coal burner is noth- 
ing more than an open wire basket, without draft, and it 
has been impossible to burn a sufficient quantity of coal. 
In other sections several types of coal heaters have been 
invented, and after one season's trial it is safe to say that 
with a satisfactory coal burner it is possible to raise the 
temperature as much as with an oil burner. 

Local conditions will determine which will be the cheaper 
fuel. With gas oil or crude oil delivered at four and one- 
half cents per gallon, coal will probably be no more ex- 
pensive at $4.50 per ton. One can count on about as 
much heat from a ton of coal as from 100 gallons of oil. 
With one year's actual experience in the use of these heat- 



Frost Injuries and Protection, Secondary Bloom 343 

ers it must be said that the oil burners are by far the most 
practical. The fuel is less bulky to handle, oil heaters 
can be handled with less help, and as the oil heaters may 
be extinguished at any time, the fuel may be used more 
economically. It will require one man to care for each 
two and one-half acres equipped with coal burners, 
while one man will tend five acres equipped with good oil 
burners. It is often almost impossible to secure the help 
required to take care of a large orchard equipped with coal 
burners. Five-acre orchards are easily protected with 
these coal burners. There are times when it may be neces- 
sary to maintain fires for only an hour, and it is a great 
waste of fuel to start a coal pot for such a short period of 
burning, for a coal burner once started may as well be 
allowed to burn out. Even though some coal may be 
saved by turning the pot over, it makes very poor fires after 
it is partially burned. There are also many cases in which 
the coal fires are started unnecessarily, for they are started 
before the danger point is really reached and known. 
A few minutes' waiting may have shown a change for the 
better, and the man who is burning oil can wait until the 
danger point is practically reached. The first cost of 
equipping the orchard with oil burners and storage tanks 
will probably be greater than the cost of coal equipment. 
While it is true that coal may be used for other purposes 
if not needed for protecting the orchard, the average 
grower cannot in one season dispose of the amount he 
must necessarily store for orchard-heating purposes. If 
oil is properly stored, there is probably less chance of 
loss by deterioration. Coal will slack if stored even from 
one year to another and will in time become undesirable 



344 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

for orchard-heating purposes. Coal containing over 20 
per cent of slack is not desirable for burning in these 
heaters. In Colorado, crude oils have not been found to 
be the most satisfactory for burning in orchard heaters, 
on account of a tendency to boil over. A product known 
to the trade as ''gas oil" is now being recommended by 
the oil companies. In fact, this is the only oil they will 
sell for orchard-heating. While this grade is not always 
uniform and will not always burn for the same length of 
time, it will burn as long on the average as crude oil and 
does not boil over. 

Fuels may be made from various materials as coal slack, 
tar, crude oil, and shavings. These fuels are now found on 
some markets and are quite well adapted to orchard-heat- 
ing purposes. As a rule they are pressed into cakes which 
may be burned in piles on the ground or in any of the coal 
burners. Like the coal, it is almost impossible to extin- 
guish them when once lighted, and the fires require fre- 
quent stirring to keep them burning freely. 

Cost of Equipment. — The cost of equipping the orchard 
with these oil heaters should not exceed $25 per acre, and 
the cost of a storage house for coal or a tank or cistern for 
oil should not exceed $7.50 per acre. A good 400-gallon 
tank for hauling and distributing oil, equipped with hose 
similar to the one shown in Figure 95, may be had for 
about $50. Local tinners will quote a price of about $30 
on a 300-gallon galvanized iron tank furnished with an 
outlet and valve 

Storage of Fuel. — Most oil heaters will burn about a 
quart of oil per hour. Thirty hours should be about the 
maximum that it will be necessary to burn the heaters 



346 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

any one season, and for this period of burning it will ne- 
cessitate the storing of about fifteen barrels of oil per acre. 
From four to five tons of coal per acre would furnish about 
the same protection as fifteen barrels of oil. Oil should be 
stored in fairly tight tanks or cisterns. Cement cisterns 
seem to be the cheapest storage reservoir. Apparently 
any cistern that will hold water will hold oil. A good 300- 
barrel cistern can be built on contract for about $150, 
and if the grower wishes to do the greater part of the work 
himself, the actual cash outlay need not be over a third of 
this. A 100-barrel galvanized iron tank may be built for 
about $75. Coal and the prepared fuels should be stored 
from the weather to avoid deterioration. 

Heaters. — At first many of the designers and manu- 
facturers of orchard heaters apparently had the idea that 
any receptacle that would hold coal or oil would make a 
satisfactory orchard heater. This idea did not last long, 
however, and many proposed orchard heaters were con- 
demned, even before they had been tried in a practical 
way; and after one year's test in actually fighting frost, 
undesirable features have been emphasized in several of 
the manufactured heaters, and the number of really useful 
kinds has been still more reduced. 

An oil heater should be so constructed and should hold 
so much oil as to burn for the maximum number of hours 
during any one night. They should burn at least seven 
hours without refilling. Refilling in the night is tedious 
and expensive, and requires a great deal of help. An oil 
burner that will burn for this period must be of the 
reservoir type. That is, it must be so constructed that 
only a part of the surface of the oil is exposed to the 



Frost Injuries and Protection, Secondary Bloom 347 

flames. The oil burner should also show very little varia- 
tion in the rate of burning when full and when almost 
empty, and it should be so constructed that the gases are 
well mixed with air in the process of burning. This in- 
sures better combustion of the fuel, gives more heat, less 
smoke, and less soot. 

A coal burner should have good draft and an open 
grate so that the ashes will fall out readily. If the grate 
is too close and the heater is not supplied with side draft, 
it will soon clog and refuse to burn. The coal burner 
must also have capacity. At best it seems that it has 
not been possible to construct a coal burner that will 
burn satisfactorily for over four hours without refilling, 
and the heater that will hold twenty-five pounds of coal 
and is so constructed that the fuel takes fire gradually, 
has a great advantage over the heater of small capacity in 
which all the fuel catches and burns at once. 

It should be remembered that large fires are liable to 
create upward currents that will carry the warm air far 
above the tree-tops and allow the colder air to settle. It 
has been suggested that probably more benefit is derived 
from the slight currents of air produced by the burning of 
the small fires than from the heat that is actually given 
off in the combustion of the fuel. Fruit-growers have 
often given their experience in trying to protect a few 
favorite trees with large bonfires. One instance comes to 
mind in which the grower built large fires about some 
favorite cherry trees. The fires were placed as near as 
possible without danger of scorching the trees, yet the 
heat was carried up too high, and the cold air settled and 
froze the crop. 



348 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

Management of Heaters. — At first thought the care of 
these heaters may seem to be a simple matter, but there 
is much to be gained in knowing just how to fire them. 
It would be a better plan for the grower to attempt at 
first to protect only a part of his orchard. And when 
once the particular make of heater is decided upon and 
bought, the grower should do a little experimenting on 
his own responsibility and learn how to fire them to the 
best advantage. This is especially true of coal burners. 

In orchards at least 25 per cent more heaters should be 
placed around the borders than in the center of the block. 
This is especially desirable when low temperatures are 
accompanied by winds. As the heaters must remain in 
the apple and pear orchard during the spraying season, an 
effort should be made to place them where they will not 
interfere with the passage of the spraying machine. It is 
well to place the heaters at some distance from the trees. 
The flaring-up of oil fires from the pot boiling over may 
cause serious injury if the pots are placed too near the 
trees. 

The number of heaters required per acre will depend 
on the heater and other factors. No doubt orchards 
with trees planted close together and large enough to 
meet across the middles, as those shown in Figure 96, are 
more easily protected than those with the trees far apart. 
It is doubtful whether any of the heaters now manu- 
factured should be recommended as ample protection at 
a rate of less than sixty per acre. It is always best to 
have ample protection, holding a number of the heaters 
in reserve; and should winds accompany freezing tem- 
peratures, it is much more effective to light a goodly 



350 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

number of heaters on the windward side of the orchard 
than an equal number of scattering fires. It has been 
observed that on a still night the benefit derived from 
these heaters does not extend far outside the boundaries 
of the orchard, and many times with a temperature as 
low as 23° the crop has been a total failure within less 
than a hundred feet of the last row of heaters when a 
perfect crop was saved inside the heated area. 

Oil heaters burning a quart of oil per hour and at the 
rate of 80 per acre should be ample protection in fighting 
a temperature of 20°, and coal heaters burning five pounds 
of coal per hour should afford the same protection with 
the same number per acre. Some of the larger heaters 
consuming more fuel have been recommended as sufficient 
protection when used as few as forty per acre, but it has 
been fairly well demonstrated that it is better both for 
the complacency of the men and sometimes for the orchard 
to have sixty. If one insists upon using oil burners that 
will not go through the night without refilling, it might 
be better to double the number of pots and burn them 
in two shifts. This would of course add to the expense 
of equipment, but would enable the grower to handle a 
large acreage with less help. 

Oil burners may be filled and placed in the orchard at 
any time after the fruit-buds have advanced far enough 
to be endangered by sudden drops in temperature. They 
must be kept well covered to exclude moisture, for this 
has a tendency to make the oil sputter and boil over. 
The burners are easily lighted with a torch, using a little 
waste for a wick. The waste may be thrown on the sur- 
face of the oil, but it will light more readily and will be 



Fruit Injuries and Protection, Secondary Bloom 351 

surer if hung on a wire hook and only partially submerged 
in oil. Another plan for lighting without the wick is to 
carry a bottle of gasoline in one hand and pour a small 
quantity on the surface of the oil in the heater and touch 
it with the torch; this is rather dangerous, and it is no 
work for children, and it is really too hazardous to be 
recommended. When once the oil catches, it burns 
freely from the surface. The burning may be regulated 
by partially covering the heater with the lid. Most 
heaters are easily extinguished by sliding the lid entirely 
on. 

By using the proper refiUing receptacle and with a 
little care, the heaters may be refilled at any time while 
burning. It is best to use a regular oil bucket for this 
work. In refilling in the daytime a tank like that shown 
in Figure 95 is most convenient. Three men with a 
good pump to draw the oil from the cistern will refill the 
pots on tw^enty acres in a ten-hour day. The engine and 
the filling pump on the spray tank may be used for lift- 
ing the oil. 

Coal burners may be placed in the orchard and filled 
at any time. Should damp weather precede a cold wave, 
they may be a little difficult to start, but the covers with 
which they are provided protect the contents very well. 
The heaters are usually charged with a handful of kindling, 
a little waste saturated with crude oil or gas oil, and from 
ten to twenty-five pounds of coal. Mixing a little kero- 
sene with the heavier oil makes it possible to light more 
rapidly with the torch. Dry tree prunings make very 
good kindling when well chopped up. Large heaters with 
flaring sides are best started by putting the kindling near 



352 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

one side with only a small amount of coal directly over 
it; the fires break through more readily and the coal 
does not all fire at once. In refilling all coal heaters it 
is well to place the new coal on one side to avoid check- 
ing the heat iany more than necessary. One of the most, 
convenient methods of refilling at night is to draw the 
coal to the orchard in a wagon or sled, and as one man 
drives the team and fills the buckets, other men carry 
the coal to the heaters. 

Thermometers. — The grower who intends to equip his 
orchard with the best means of frost protection will not 
overlook good thermometers. Electric frost-alarms, com- 
monly called thermostats, are on the market. They may 
be placed in the orchard and connected with an electric 
bell in the house and set to ring the bell when the tem- 
perature reaches the danger point. In actual use these 
alarms have not been very satisfactory, and many per- 
sons who have tried them have reached the conclusion 
that they are not to be trusted. A good thermometer 
will serve the purpose, but though it necessitates having 
a watchman, this is the safer plan. A good crop is worthy 
of such vigilance; and by placing thermometers in different 
parts of the orchard more reliable readings are secured. 
The fruit-grower should not rely on cheap thermometers. 
Buy tested instruments, and, if possible, check them up 
with a good government thermometer. 

The United States Weather Bureau offices often help 
the fruit-grower by predicting cold waves far enough in 
advance that the grower may be on his guard. Localities 
that are fortunate enough to have an office of the Bureau 
in the immediate vicinity come to rely on the official in 



Fruit Injuries and Protection^ Secondary Bloom 353 

charge, who with volunteer help watches the thermometer 
during the night and warn the growers when the tem- 
perature reaches the danger point. Localities not so 
fortunately situated should establish information head- 
quarters. There is much to be gained by such organiza- 
tion. Headquarters may keep in touch with various 
growers over the guarded area, watch the temperature 
readings in different localities, watch the movements of 
the air-currents, and in many ways relieve the grower of 
much anxiety. Two or three good level-headed men at 
such headquarters, with telephone facilities and reliable 
thermometers in different localities, are often able to 
predict fluctuations in temperature, reassure men who are 
anxious to fire and would thus waste fuel, and generally 
warn them in time to be prepared for sudden drops in 
temperature. 

Many fruit-growers are at a loss to know when the fires 
should be lighted. Hundreds of dollars' worth of fuel has 
been burned up needlessly when the fruit was in no dan- 
ger, and hundreds of dollars' worth of fruit has been lost 
because the grower placed the danger point too low. It 
is doubtful whether a temperature of 30° will injure fruit 
or buds in any stage. A temperature of 28° if of long 
enough duration to freeze the tissues solid wdll kill peaches 
in bloom or after the fruit is set. After the little peaches 
have reached some size they often pass through periods 
of lower temperature of short duration. Peach trees well 
loaded with buds and far enough advanced to show a 
slight trace of pink have often escaped with a good crop 
with a minimum temperature of 22°. Fruit-buds of the 
apple and pear open far enough to show the tips of the 
2a 



354 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

flower-buds are seriously injured by temperatures lower 
than 20°. Apple or pear buds far enough advanced to 
show the color at the tips are usually only shghtly injured 
by temperatures as low as 25°. Apples or pears in bloom 
and after the fruit is set will seldom withstand tempera- 
tures lower than 28°, if of long enough duration to freeze 
the tissues solid. Cherries, apricots, and most of the 
plums will require about the same protection as peaches. 
Native plums in bloom or with the fruit set will often 
endure a temperature of 25°. 

Storing Heaters. — After the orchard heaters have been 
burned, they will probably rust badly if not well cared for. 
They should be placed in attics rather than in cellars and 
should be dipped in oil before storing. Smudging oil will 
do very well for dipping. 



CHAPTER XX 

ORCHARD PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 

The fruit-grower in the semi-arid regions is fortunate 
in having but few of the many orchard diseases to con- 
tend with. The writers are of the opinion that this im- 
munity to disease, so far as the great majority of coijimon 
troubles is concerned, will be permanent. We are con- 
firmed in this view for several reasons, among which may 
be mentioned this point : orchard pests are often spread 
from one locality to another on nursery stock, pear- 
blight and crown-gall having been brought to our or- 
chards in this way. This being true, it stands to reason 
that many other things have found their way to our 
orchards, as trees and plants come to us from all sections 
of the United States. One can only conclude that the 
climatic conditions are such that many of these common 
pests of the humid states will not thrive. At any rate, 
they are not found here, and bordeaux mixture, the stand- 
ard fungicide, is unknown to most of our growers. Four 
years ago a few leaves attacked by curl were found on 
each of six or eight young peach trees in an orchard at 
Paonia, Colorado. All affected leaves were picked from 
the trees for safety, but it is scarcely possible that all 
traces of the disease were removed. The trees have been 

355 



356 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

examined each year since, but no further evidence of curl 
has been discovered. 

Some of the diseases can be controlled only by cutting 
out the affected trees, as in peach-yellows. Pear-blight 
could be controlled if all of the diseased limbs were re- 
moved promptly, but this seems to be impossible for the 
majority of orchardists. Brown-rot of the stone-fruits 
has not as yet been successfully combated; and in wet 
seasons it is very difficult and often impossible to control 
such common diseases as apple-scab. This is due not 
only to the inability to spray at the proper time, or the 
material being washed off by the rains, though these are 
important features. Unfortunately, the copper in bor- 
deaux mixture is made soluble under some conditions, 
and when this occurs, more damage results to fruit and 
foHage from the corrosive action of the copper than from 
the disease. 

The apples that come to our markets from the humid 
states are more or less scabby and often discolored w^ith 
the sooty blotch, and the peaches are commonly dis- 
figured by scab or some surface-growing mold. Our 
growers have never been bothered by fungi that attacks 
leaves and fruit, consequently they have been saved the 
expense of spraying, and the fruit goes on the market 
without a blemish. These are distinct advantages which 
it is to be hoped will continue. 

We have a few diseases, however, and at least one of 
them, pear-blight, is very destructive. These are de- 
scribed in the following pages, and the latest information 
in regard to their control is given. 

As in plant diseases, the insect enemies with which our 



Orchard Pests and their Control 357 

orchardists have to contend are comparatively few. 
Altitude and aridity certainly have something to do in 
rendering our orchards immune to a large array of pests 
that are common to orchards in lower altitudes both East 
and West. But the codlin-moth and the green and the 
woolly aphis are so abundant and persistent that they 
make up in a measure for the lack in number of species. 

Only the more important insects are included in the 
following discussion. All of the information in regard to 
them has been abridged from the numerous publications 
of Professor C. P. Gillette, entomologist of the Colorado 
Agricultural Experiment Station. 

It should be borne in mind that the term ''plant-diseases " 
as discussed in these pages refers only to those orchard 
troubles that are caused by the attacks of small plants. 
While these plants are mostly microscopic and low in the 
scale of development, they are just as truly plants as are 
the trees upon which they live. If one can think of the 
bacteria and fungi as being microscopic weeds, it will help 
to an understanding of what might otherwise seem mys- 
terious. It is difficult, for example, for the beginner to 
understand how the death of blighted pear trees is due to 
the growth of small plants within the tissues of the trees. 
Yet that such is the case has long been known. 

All persons know that insect pests are live animals; 
but not all are familiar with the fact that insects have 
different modes of feeding. Any one can see that cabbage- 
worms chew their food and gradually devour large areas 
of cabbage leaves. But how about plant-lice, scale insects, 
mites, and a large number of similar insects? These pests 
are usually small, and their feeding-habits are not so 



358 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

easily observed. But it is plain that they do not devour 
leaves or bite holes into fruit. Some of them, in fact, 
remain stationary during the most of their lives. Close 
observation will show ^that in place of jaws this class 
of insects is provided with sucking mouth-parts. They 
must, therefore, pierce the bark, or epidermis, and suck 
the juices from the parts on which they feed. It is evi- 
dent that it is impossible to poison such insects. In 
order to be a successful orchardist, one must make a care- 
ful study of orchard pests, as many of them require 
special treatment. 

When it is possible to prevent the spread of plant dis- 
eases by spraying, bordeaux mixture has been almost 
universally used. Biting insects may be killed by poison- 
ing their food; arsenate of lead has come to be the stand- 
ard poison for this purpose. The sucking insects must be 
killed by some agent that suffocates or corrodes. Deadly 
gases are sometimes employed, but more commonly some 
mixture or solution is used that may be applied in the 
form of a spray, such as the lime-sulfur mixture or the 
tobacco decoctions. While good spraying is always neces- 
sary, it is specially important with sucking insects, as 
each ind'vidual must be hit by the spray. 

The codhn-moth is sprayed for before the eggs are laid. 
The larvae, or worms, do not hatch till several weeks later, 
but if the spraying is well done, the first mouthful results 
in the death of the insect. But as the sucking insects 
cannot be poisoned, it is no use to spray for them until 
they make their appearance, unless, indeed, the eggs are 
to be killed by a winter spray. 



Orchard Pests and their Control 359 

DISEASES AND INSECTS OF THE APPLE 

Fungous Diseases 

Blight (Bacillus amylovorus) . See under Pear. 

Crown-gall. — The subject of crown-gall is of vital impor- 
tance in the semi-arid country, since under our conditions the 
organism that is responsible for this disease of fruit trees and 
plants finds congenial surroundings for growth and distribution. 

The so-called galls are irregular outgrowth of tissue that com- 
monly form around the crown of a tree just below the surface of 
the ground. They also occur frequently on the roots, but are 
very different in appearance from the swellings that are produced 
by the attacks of woolly aphis, which, unfortunately, are also 
very destructive. 

There are two forms of galls, known as the soft and the hard. 
They are much alike in external appearance, but differ in struc- 
ture. " Hairy-root " is possibly a distinct disease, but its effects 
are much the same. It receives its name from the quantity of 
fine roots which may or may not arise from a gall. All of these 
forms appear to be equally destructive. 

The galls increase rapidly in size, when the conditions are 
favorable, and so interfere with the processes of nutrition that 
the vigor of the tree is greatly impaired. In many instances the 
death of the tree is but a matter of a few years. The point of 
attack being underground, the infected trees are commonly un- 
noticed until they begin to fail. This stage may be recognized 
by the weak growth and yellow appearance of the foliage. 

This disease first began to attract the attention of experiment 
station workers in 1892, when the California station published a 
bulletin on the subject. This was followed by a number of articles 
from different stations, and in 1900 Toumey, then of the Arizona 
Experiment Station, published a bulletin in which he attempted 
to prove that crown-gall is induced by attacks of a slime mold. 
His results, however, have never been verified, and the exact 
cause of the disease is not yet definitely known. 

In the spring of 1907 Smith and Townsend, of the Depart- 



360 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

ment of Agriculture, published a brief account of their work with 
galls on the Paris daisy. They proved that this particular gall 
is caused by the attacks of a bacterium, and, what is more im- 
portant, they found that when pure cultures of this organism 
were inoculated^ into peach roots, galls were formed that resemble 
closely the common crown-gall. 

So it appears that we are at last to have the cause of crown- 
gall explained. But in the meantime we know that under semi- 
arid conditions this disease is often fatal to all kinds of orchard 
trees. We also think that it is spread in the orchard from tree 
to tree, although this has not been proved. No remedy has yet 
been suggested which has any value in controlling the disease. 
The only thing that can be suggested is to insist on the most 
rigid inspection of nursery stock, and all trees should be rejected 
that show any traces of gall. All orchard trees found to be dis- 
eased should be destroyed, particularly apple trees, as they rarely 
live over ten years, and what fruit is borne is likely to be under- 
sized. 

Mildew (Podosphcera species). — A mildew similar to the disease 
that attacks the peach is found occasionally on apple twigs. 
This has not been serious as yet, but if at any time it should 
need attention, spraying with bordeaux mixture as outlined for 
peach mildew will be effective. The young, vigorous twigs, 
young trees, and grafts are most subject to attack. 

Root-rots. — Orchardists and experiment station workers 
alike have been puzzled for several years over the cause of root- 
rot in apple and pear trees. The name conveys at once the 
condition in which the trees are found. In some cases no injury 
is to be seen above ground, but when the tree dies, it will be found 
to be girdled just below ground, and most of the roots are decayed. 
In other cases strips of dead bark extend up the trunks and 
often into the larger branches. In such cases the first indica- 
tion of disease is the appearance on trunks and branches of dark 
brown spots caused by the exudation of sap. As the disease 
progresses, the bark dries down to the wood, all of the involved 
part taking on the dark color. Such trees usually ripen their 
foliage early in the fall, and the bark of the branches has a pecul- 



Orchard Pests and their Control 361 

iar reddish cast. Many trees die in midseason, with fruit and 
foliage clinging, the second season after symptoms of trouble 
were noticed. The inner wood of the branches of some of the 
affected trees is dark-colored, or black-hearted, a condition which 
has popularly been supposed to result from injury by frost alone. 
Another symptom which seems to be associated with this trouble 
is the splitting of the bark on the trunks. Such wounds bleed 
profusely, and it may be that some of the excessive bleeding 
which sometimes takes place from wounds made in pruning may 
be due to the same cause. In all cases the starting point is either 
at or below the surface of the ground. Fungi may be responsible 
for some of the dead trees, but this has never been definitely 
determined. The common pear-blight may also work in the 
roots of apple and pear trees, but this is unusual. 

The authors have spent much time over this all too common 
disease, but they were unable to arrive at any conclusions. For- 
tunately, our co-worker, Dr. W. P. Headden, became interested 
in the subject, and in a recent bulletin he gives the results of his 
investigations.^ He found upon analysis that the inner bark and 
wood of affected trees, not dead trees, contained a large percent- 
age of arsenic, as much as 12.77 parts in a million. All fruit- 
growers know that even a small amount of soluble arsenic in the 
soil is fatal to vegetation, but they have felt safe in using large 
quantities of the various arsenical sprays for the reason that 
these forms of arsenic were supposed to be insoluble. It has 
been the custom in some sections to spray from six to twelve times 
a season for the codlin-moth. The appliances were often crude 
in form, consequently much spray material was wasted and was 
deposited on the ground. Naturally, the greatest accumulation 
is around the base of the tree where the injury occurs. Analysis 
of soil taken from near the base of trees, to the depth of one 
foot, shows that arsenic has accumulated in varying amounts up 
to 61.3 parts of arsenic acid in a million of soil. 

Even such large amounts of arsenic would be harmless if it 
remained insoluble, as had been supposed. Dr. Headden finds, 

1 Headden, W. P., "Arsenical Poisoning of Fruit Trees," Colorado 
Expt. Sta. Bui. 131, 1908. 



362 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

however, that the alkali salt solutions, which are abundant in all 
arid soils, are solvents of arsenic and so are constantly bringing 
this extremely poisonous material into solution. This action is 
of course greater in some soils than in others, depending on the 
constituents present. 

This condition is indeed serious. We have no poison other 
than the arsenic preparation with which the codlin-moth may be 
successfully combated, and if we are to grow apples and pears 
successfully, spraying cannot be dispensed with. In the bulletin 
mentioned above Dr. Headden sums up the situation as follows : 

" I have no remedy to suggest for either condition. Preven- 
tive measures are, so far as I can see, our only recourse. Those 
which suggest themselves to me are : to remove the arsenic-laden 
soil from about the crown of the tree and replace it with fresh 
soil; to use standard brands of lead arsenate in preference to the 
arsenite of lime or w^hite arsenic, sal soda, and lime; to use as 
little lead arsenate as possible. I have been told that good re- 
sults have been obtained by using 2 J and even 2 pounds of pasty 
lead arsenate to 100 gallons of water, but the spraying must be 
done thoroughly. Spray no oftener than is absolutely necessary. 
If I am not mistaken. Professor Gillette has found that 95 per 
cent of the effect of the whole season's spraying was obtained 
by the fiVst spraying when thoroughly well done. Some device 
should be used to prevent the spray material from running down 
the trunk and collecting at its base, or it would be still better to 
make provision for gathering the whole of the drip. Water rich 
in alkalies should not be allowed to flow close enough to the tree 
to permit of the deposition of the alkalies in the soil about the 
trunk of the tree. Concentrated lye, if used to kill woolly aphis, 
should not be applied to the soil at the crown of the tree or per- 
mitted to flow down and collect there." 

Insect Enemies of Apple 

Green Apple Aphis (Aphis pomi). — This is the common green 
louse that curls the leaves of the apple tree. While primarily a 
leaf-feeder, this louse also attacks the tender tips of growing 
shoots, especially grafts and watersprouts. This insect ranks 



Orchard Pests and their Control i 363 

close to the woolly aphis in extent of injuries to the apple tree. 
It also attacks the pear, the thorn, and the quince. 

This louse remains on the apple, or closely allied trees, through- 
out the year and does not go on other trees or vegetables. The 
first lice in the spring hatch from eggs that were deposited the 
previous fall on the twigs. These first lice hatch a few days 
before the buds open and are ready to insert their sharp beaks 
into the first tender green tissue of the opening buds. They are 
all females, and become fully grown in about two or three 
weeks, when they begin giving birth to living young. From 
this time on the lice increase very rapidly if they are not kept 
down by their natural enemies or the insecticides of the 
orchardist. 

At first all the lice are wingless, but by the 10th to the 15th 
of May in the warmer regions, and about two weeks later in the 
cooler orchard sections, the winged lice begin to appear and to 
fly from tree to tree and orchard to orchard with the prevailing 
winds. About the first week in September little brown wingless 
males and green wingless egg-laying females appear, and a little 
later the females begin laying green eggs that soon turn black 
upon the apple twigs. The freezing nights in November or early 
December kill all the lice, and the eggs live over to hatch the 
following spring. 

Treatment for this insect may be for the destruction of the 
eggs and young lice before the buds open in the spring, or for 
the destruction of the lice on the leaves during the growing season. 
The early spring is the more important. There are two sprays 
that may be used with equally good results when the trees are 
dormant : — 

Lime-sulfur mixture or Rex lime-sulfur, in dilutions down to 
one gallon in eight gallons of water, have given good results. 

Black-leaf. — This preparation may be used in the proportion 
of one gallon in 25, or one gallon in 33 of water. 

For the destruction of plant-lice on the leaves, spray very 
thoroughly and forcefully from all directions with Black Leaf, 
one part in 70 of water, or with tobacco decoction, or with whale- 
oil soap solution. 



364 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

Woolly Apple Aphis (Schizoneura lanigera). — This is probably 
the most serious apple pest in this region. It is a bark feeder, 
and it attacks the roots, the trunk, and the limbs, but does not 
feed on the fruit or foliage to any extent. This louse is readily 
recognized on account of its being covered with a white, woolly 
secretion which has suggested its common name. Upon the 
trunk and the branches the lice attack either the tender bark 
about the scars or the bark of tender new shoots. Below ground 
the lice attack the bark of roots, particularly of the smaller roots, 
causing warty swellings upon them. If very abundant, the roots 
are often completely covered with these smooth wart-like growths, 
jvhich sometimes cause the roots to die and rot off. When very 
abundant on the rapidly growing twigs, these lice often produce 
abrupt swellings due to the thickening of the inner bark. Some- 
times these swollen parts crack open lengthwise, and the limbs 
may be sufficiently injured to cause them to die. Severest injury 
is done to the tops, where there is the tenderest and most rapid 
growth, as in grafts and watersprouts. 

The life habits of this insect may be briefly stated as follows: 
Early in spring there will be a few living lice in protected places 
beneath the bark or under the dead bodies of the lice that were 
killed the previous fall. There will also be a large number of 
lice living over on the roots beneath the surface of the ground. 
The lice that live over on top are all very small. Those living 
over on the roots are of all sizes from the smallest to those that 
are fully grown. By the time the buds begin to open, the lice 
that live over on the top will locate on tender new bark and in- 
sert their beaks and begin to suck the sap of the tree and to grow 
in size. At the same time a greater or lesser number of small 
lice that live over winter about the crown of the trees, and per- 
haps some that came up from the roots, migrate to the top and 
begin to feed and grow. These lice start the round of develop- 
ment for the year on the tree- tops. They are usually first de- 
tected by the fruit-grower when the little lice have grown enough 
to secrete a white covering to their bodies which makes them 
appear like little moldy spots upon the bark. These lice in- 
crease very rapidly, so that by the middle of June or first of July 



Orchard Pests and their Control 365 

the tree may be very badly infested, and the cottony secretion 
may be so heavy as to hang down and even fall from the bodies 
of the lice. 

The lice are all wingless until about the first of September, 
when an occasional winged louse may usually be found upon the 
trees. They leave the trees where they develop and fly to others. 
Each of these winged lice gives birth to about four or five males 
and as many females. Before winter comes on, each female de- 
posits a single egg and dies. No one seems to have followed this 
part of the life history of the woolly aphis in the orchard. It is 
supposed that these eggs hatch the following spring and start new 
colonies. 

The woolly aphis lives on the roots in large numbers the year 
round, the only difference in the winter being that the lice re- 
produce very slowly, and so do not increase much in numbers. 
The cold weather seems never to be sufficient to kill them even 
in our coldest climates where the apple is grown. 

Prevention is nearly always better than cure. Great care 
should be taken, therefore, when setting out a new orchard, to 
prevent the introduction of this louse. Orchards are usually in- 
fested by the lice that are on the roots of the nursery tf^ees when 
they are set out. All nursery stock should be thoroughly disin- 
fected either by fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas, or by 
very thorough spraying of the trees, both roots and branches, 
before they are set, with one of the remedies mentioned below 
for spraying tops. 

One method of preventing injuries from this louse is to have 
all apple trees on Northern Spy roots, as Northern Spy seems 
never to be seriously attacked. 

If nursery stock is received with roots "puddled" (covered 
with mud), the purchaser should insist upon this mud being 
thoroughly washed off, and the roots treated for woolly aphis, as 
this is one of the methods that the nursery man has of covering 
up woolly aphis. 

To prevent the spread of the woolly aphis from tree to tree 
and orchard to orchard, the lice should be well cleaned out of the 
orchard before the first week of September, as it is about this 



366 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

time when the winged lice begin to fly about to spread the 
species. 

Wherever this louse can be reached by sprays, it may be de- 
stroyed like other plant-lice, but the spray must be applied with 
sufficient force to remove or penetrate the woolly covering. 
There are several spray materials that we have found to be en- 
tirely successful when thoroughly applied to this insect. 

Black-leaf is, all things considered, by far the best spray for 
plant-lice that has yet been introduced. It gives no better re- 
sults than kerosene emulsion when properly made, but the diffi- 
culty our growers experience in making a good emulsion with the 
universal alkaline water makes its use almost prohibitive. At 
any rate, very few growers attempt to make it. Black Leaf is a 
tobacco decoction which was originally manufactured as a sheep 
dip. It has been given a thorough test by many orchardists, 
and has given universal satisfaction. It is used in the propor- 
tion of one gallon to 65 or 70 gallons of water. 

So far, the remedies mentioned have been for summer treat- 
ments, when the bodies of the lice are more or less covered with 
the waxy secretion. We think the best time to get results in the 
treatment of this louse is late in the winter, or early in spring 
before the buds open. This is not because the lice find protec- 
tion from the opening buds, but because by the time the buds 
have opened, the lice have their bodies more or less covered by 
waxy secretions that protect them to some extent from the effects 
of the insecticides. 

Many orchardists have found that when they used the lime- 
sulfur mixture for the destruction of the eggs of the green apple 
aphis, they largely freed the trees from woolly aphis at the same 
time. 

The following formulae have been found to be reliable: — 

Lime 15 pounds, sulfur 15 pounds, water 30 gallons; 
Lime 15 pounds, sulfur 15 pounds, water 45 gallons; 
Rex lime-sulfur 1 gallon, water 7 gallons, lump lime 2 pounds. 

We have no doubt that the kerosene emulsion, the tobacco 
sprays, and the whale-oil soaps could also be used successfully as 



Orchard Pests and their Control 367 

early spring sprays for the destruction of the over-winter lice on 
the tree- tops, although we have not tested them in that way. 
As they are not as successful for the destruction of the eggs of 
the green apple aphis, and as the orchardist is likely to want to 
destroy both of these lice at the same time if possible, it is prob- 
able that the lime-sulfur sprays will become most popular for 
early spring applications. 

To secure best results on the woolly aphis, the spring applica- 
tion should be made fully a week or ten days before the apple 
buds begin to open at all, and the trunk and crown of the tree 
should be thoroughly drenched. Then as a final act for best 
results, put Tanglefoot bands about the trunks of the trees so 
that the lice at the roots cannot migrate to the top. 

In recent experiments large numbers of Tanglefoot bands 
have been used. This material is put out by the O. and W. 
Thum Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan, and is the sticky material 
of the Tanglefoot fly-paper. When at all abundant upon the 
trees, the newly born lice are much inclined to travel, and it is 
often astonishing to see the number of lice that will be captured 
in these bands. On the 7th of June, 1907, it was estimated that 
bands that had been on since the preceding fall had as many as 
100,000 lice each in many cases. The bands remain fresh for 
several months and may be quickly freshened by rubbing a paddle 
over them, if they become filled with insects and dirt. 

From observations recently made the indications are that 
Tanglefoot will seriously injure trees if applied directly to the 
trunks. A better way is to put a band of stout paper around 
the\runk and then put the material upon that. A light band of 
cheap cotton batting under the paper will prevent any lice from 
passing under. 

The common notion that the woolly aphis may be killed by 
heavy irrigation in winter is an error. It would be impossible to 
keep a sufficient amount of water in the soil long enough to bring 
about this result without doing serious injury to the trees. 

Brown Mite (Bryobia species). — The brown or clover mite is 
extremely small, and its presence is usually first detected by the 
faded, sickly appearance of the apple foliage. The trees have 



368 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

the appearance of suffering for water. The mites feed on the 
leaves, but deposit their red eggs on trunk and limbs. When 
very abundant, the eggs give a red color to the bark, an efifect 
that is more often noticed during winter. 

Mites are found on nearly all tree-fruits and on small-fruits as 
well. They are sometimes particularly destructive to the red 
raspberry. 

This insect is best combated in the egg stage at any time in 
winter. For this purpose the lime-sulfur mixture or whale-oU 
soap, quadruple strength, may be used. If it becomes necessary 
to spray while the leaves are on the trees, use whale-oil soap or 
Black Leaf of ordinary strengths. 

Codlin-moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) . — Flesh-colored larvse 
eating into the fruit and causing wormy apples. The first brood 
of larvae (worms) begin eating into the fruit when early apples 
are about an inch in diameter. This brood is not very numerous, 
but it develops a second brood later in summer whieh is very 
much more numerous. 

A good brand of arsenate of lead is the only poison that is 
worth considering, although other forms of arsenates may be used. 

The methods of spraying for the codlin-moth have changed 
rapidly in recent years. Formerly the trees were often sprayed 
eight and ten times a season, but in spite of this a large per- 
centage of wormy apples was the rule. Growers who followed 
this practice failed to appreciate the fact that about three-fourths 
of the first brood of worms enter the apples at the calyx. This 
is where the importance of filling each calyx-cup with poison 
comes in. If all of the first brood could be killed, there would 
be no second brood and consequently no worms late in the sum- 
mer, when the greatest damage occurs. Many orchardists appre- 
ciate this fact, and so devote all their energies to applying the first 
spray at the proper time and in a thorough manner. This is a 
job that cannot be neglected. As soon as the petals have mostly 
fallen, spraying should be begun, and it must be persistently fol- 
lowed. The calyxes remain open for only about six or eight days, 
and after this the spraying is practically useless for the first brood 
of worms. If a second application is thought desirable, it should 



Orchard Pests and their Control 369 

be given about thirty days later. Some of our progressive growers 
are now relying on the first spraying, performed at just the right 
time and applied in a thorough manner, and are meeting with 
good success. 

Since we now know that trees may be poisoned by arsenic as 
a result of spraying, it is very important that all persons should 
spray as few times as possible and that the mixture should be as 
weak as will do effective work. 

Advance has been made also in the amount of arsenic re- 
quired. Formerly many growers thought that if a little was 
good, much more would be better, and many used as much as 
eight and ten pounds of poison to one hundred gallons of water. 
Melander has recently found that two pounds of poison to one 
hundred gallons is sufficient to do effective work under Wash- 
ington conditions. Consequently we think that three pounds to 
each one hundred gallons is the most that should be recommended. 

Traps in the form of cloth bands around the trunks for catch- 
ing the larvae are of considerable service if properly attended to. 
But when one has learned to spray most effectively, it is no longer 
worth while to use bands. Lights to trap the moths are value- 
less. The doors and windows of cellars and storage houses should 
be screened, as many moths develop from the worms in infested 
fruit. 

Clean culture, and especially the stirring of the soil about the 
trunks of the trees, will prevent the worms from successfully 
undergoing their transformations under clods and about the 
crowns. 

One should have outfits enough to complete the first spraying 
within eight days from the time it is begun; or if one has varieties 
that bloom at different times, arrange the work so that none of 
the trees will have to wait more than one week from the time 
the petals are off until they are sprayed. 

A good power outfit for spraying will do to take care of twenty 
acres of apple orchard that is twelve or more years of age. It 
will be a mistake to expect it to do much more than this. 

Large trees require from six to ten gallons of liquid each for 
a thorough first spray. If the average is eight gallons and there 
2 b 



370 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

are eighty trees to the acre, it will require sixty-four tanks of two 
hundred gallons each to make the application. 

If the weather is warm, some varieties will close their calyxes 
within six days from the time the petals are off, and the little 
apples that close their calyxes first are the ones most likely to 
set and make fruit. 

When making the first spray, the grower must determine upon 
one thing, if he is to get anything like perfect fruit, and that is 
to stay with each tree until every calyx has been filled with the spray. 
He should stop occasionally and examine the blossoms to find 
out whether this is being done. 

With large trees always have a tower or platform above the 
tank where two men may stand with long rods to spray down- 
ward while one or two men with short poles upon the ground 
spray upward through the trees. 

A pressure of one hundred to one hundred fifty pounds is suf- 
ficient to do good work, if proper nozzles are used. 

San Jose Scale. See under Plum. 

DISEASES OF THE APRICOT 

Blight {Bacillus amylovorus). — The germs of pear-blight occa- 
sionally attack apricot trees. The twigs and branches are killed, 
and the fruit rotted much the same as pear or apple trees are 
attacked. 

The only remedy is to cut out and burn the infected parts. 
See Pear. 

San Jose Scale. See under Plum. 

INSECTS OF THE CHERRY 

Pear-tree Slug (Eriocampoides limacina). — While the slug is 
primarily a pear-tree insect, it is more common on cherry trees. 
It is the larva of a fly, slimy in appearance, resembling a snail. 
It feeds on the upper surface of the leaves, rapidly skeletonizing 
them. It is common to see cherry trees denuded of foliage by 
these insects in midsummer. This results in serious damage to 
the trees ultimately, but there is no excuse for such injury as the 
slugs are easily controlled. 



372 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

The treatment consists in spraying with white hellebore or 
with arsenate of lead. Most of the insects may also be killed by 
simply dusting the trees thoroughly with air-slaked lime, wood 
ashes, or with road dust. 

San Jose Scale. See under Plum. 

DISEASES AND INSECTS OF THE PEACH 

Fungous Diseases 

Crown-gall. See under Apple. 

Mildew (Podosphcera oxyacanthce .) — This is the only disease 
for which our orchardists have found it necessary to spray, and 
that in only comparatively few instances. This is a surface- 
growing fungus, and in its early stages appears as white frost-like 
patches on leaves, twigs, or fruit. The leaves on new growths are 
most susceptible to attack and are often much crumpled and 
dwarfed, and later many of them fall. Thus the twigs are checked 
in their growth or killed outright, and the leaf surface reduced. 
It attacks the fruits when they are young, and the flesh under the 
spots becomes hard and the skin takes on a brown color. The 
hardening of the flesh arrests development at that point, and 
consequently the peaches are unmarketable. Entire crops have 
been ruined in this way. 

Fortunately, mildew is easily controlled by spraying with 
bordeaux mixture, preferably in early spring before the leaves 
are out. If spraying is deferred until the leaves have started, 
only half of the amount of copper sulfate may be used. Bordeaux 
mixture of full strength is usually fatal to peach foliage. 

Yellows. — The true peach-yellows has never been found in 
this region. In a number of localities, however, peach trees have 
developed yellow foliage, and some of the trees have died, and 
thus the suspicion has been aroused in some quarters that this 
dread disease has at last made its appearance in our orchards. 

The first thing one notices in going into such localities is that 
not only are the peach trees affected, but that other trees present 
a similar appearance; even the cottonwood is not exempt. But 
there is in reality little similarity between this condition and true 



Orchard Pests and their Control 373 

peach-yellows. There is no premature ripening of fruit, no clusters 
of small branches, and the trees may bear yellow foliage for a 
number of years and eventually recover, — something unheard 
of with peach-yellows, where death is swift and sure. Instead 
we find pale yellow or greenish yellow foliage, stunted growth, 
small fruit, bare branches with small clusters or rosettes of leaves 
at the end, and eventually dead branches and finally dead trees. 

In all localities which have come under our observation, the 
affected trees occur on marly land, which is described on page 19. 
It is true that many orchards of vigorous trees may be found 
growing in this kind of soil, but it is also true that it is more difficult 
to keep the trees in good condition. In many of these orchards 
the culture has not been suited to the conditions, consequently 
the supply of available plant-food has been depleted, and the 
ground has become so compact that it is almost impossible for 
the absorbing roots to develop. When for any reason the soil 
conditions become uncongenial, it is impossible for many absorb- 
ing roots to form, consequently malnutrition results. The tree 
responds promptly, and the yellow foliage is the signal of distress. 
The importance of understanding the nature of plants as set 
forth under the heading of " The Orchard Plant " (page 53) 
should now be apparent to all. Had these growers fully under- 
stood the delicate nature of their trees, much of this loss and 
worry might have been avoided. 

As to the remedy, it should be understood that marly land is 
not the best for orchards, but it has been made to grow profit- 
able fruit plantations. As has been intimated, good culture must 
be practiced; when yellow foliage appears, the grower must 
change and improve his methods. We would recommend first 
that the ground be plowed late in the fall to a depth of at least 
six inches, and deeper if practical. In the spring plant some 
leguminous crop, as red clover. Do not cut any of the crop for 
hay, but return it all to the soil. Plow this material under in the 
fall, and repeat the process the following season. It may be 
advisable later on to allow the crop to stand for two seasons before 
plowing, but this must be determined by the conditions. In all 
cases the irrigation furrows must be kept open so that the water 



374 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

may be spread without overwatering the trees closest to the 
ditch. Well-rotted manure may be used in place of the green- 
manure, but in most orchard districts stable manure is not avail- 
able, and for various reasons it is not so well adapted to the 
purpose as growing plants. 

The writers have seen the plan as above outlined carried out 
in several orchards, and the results have been almost phenomenal. 

Insect Enemies of Peach 

Brown Mite. See under Apple. 

Peach Twig-borer (Anarsia lineatella). — This is the worst in- 
sect enemy of the peach with which the mountain fruit-grower 
has to contend. As soon as the buds begin to open, a small, 
brownish larva with a black head eats into the buds and destroys 
them. When the new shoots start, the borer eats into them, 
causing them to wilt and die. Many of the second brood of this 
borer eat into the peaches, causing a gummy exudation and ruin- 
ing them for market. The larvae that appear in the spring spent 
the winter in little excavations which they made in the fall in the 
bark of the trees. 

The treatment for the twig-borer consists in spraying the trees 
in the spring just before the buds open. The lime-sulfur mix- 
ture, or whale-oil soap in the proportion of one pound to two 
gallons of water, or arsenate of lead, one pound to 20 gallons of 
water, may be used. 

We are not accustomed to think of peach trees as requiring 
systematic spraying, consequently young peach trees are some- 
times neglected. If the borers get a start in the spring and are 
not checked, the second brood may be so numerous by mid- 
summer as to seriously injure the growth. If it is found that 
these insects are numerous at any time during the growing season, 
a thorough spraying with arsenate of lead, of the strength recom- 
mended for codlin-moth, will be found to be both safe and effec- 
tive. 

Plant-lice. — The plant-lice that attack the foliage of the 
peach tree may be treated in the same way as the apple plant- 



Orchard Pests and their Control 375 

louse. The black cherry-louse has not become thoroughly dis- 
tributed as yet, and every effort should be made to exterminate 
it as soon as it is discovered. 

San Jose Scale. See under Plum. 

DISEASES AND INSECTS OF THE PEAR 

Fungous Diseases 

Blight (Bacillus amylovorus) . — This disease is known under a 
variety of local names such as pear-blight, fire-blight, apple- 
blight, and sometimes, according to the parts attacked, as twig- 
blight, blossom-blight, body-blight, and root-blight. It is most 
destructive in its attacks on the pear, but is also very injurious 
to the apple and the quince. It also attacks the apricot and plum 
on occasion, but its injuries to these hosts have never been severe. 

This, the most destructive of all orchard diseases, has been 
known in America for more than a century, and it is scarcely 
necessary to observe that during these many years of disastrous 
outbreaks, nearly every conceivable theory as to the cause of the 
disease has been advanced. These notions have been threshed 
over and over as new localities have been invaded year after 
year. A number of localities in this region are now having their 
first experience with blight, and a few are still exempt. Con- 
sequently, these many theories are being rediscovered and ad- 
vocated by their adherents. One of the more recent causes to 
be advanced is a variation of the frozen-sap theory, which was 
first advocated by A. J. Downing in his " Fruits and Fruit Trees 
of America," which was published in 1845. The germ theory of 
the cause of the disease was first advanced by Burrill of the Uni- 
versity of Illinois in 1878. In 1880 he made a more complete 
report of his work. He found that he could produce blight in 
healthy apple and pear trees by inoculating with diseased tissue 
or by simply pricking a healthy limb with a needle which had 
been dipped in juice from diseased bark. Although the micro- 
organisms were found in all cases, such experiments could not be 
accepted as positive proof. In other words, was it the germs or 
was it the " poisonous sap " which caused the disease? 



376 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

The work of Arthur at the New York Agricultural Experiment 
Station, in 1884 and 1885, should settle this point forever. Dr. 
Arthur made cultures of blight germs in a liquid medium, which 
were taken from blighted trees. These were pure cultures and 
were carried through a number of generations. Blight was pro- 
duced in trees by inoculating with the last culture. But to 
satisfy those who might still say that the injury was due to the 
liquid and not to the germs, inoculations were made with the 
liquid from which the germs had been removed. This was ac- 
complished by filtering through earthenware cells. The filtered 
liquid was found to be entirely free from germs, and all inocula- 
tions with it failed entirely to produce results. 

These experiments, which have been duplicated by many ex- 
perimenters, prove beyond any possible doubt that this specific 
micro-organism is the cause of blight. The germs, which are a 
low form of vegetable life, feed on the cambium layer of the 
plant. They gain entrance only through wounds in the bark or 
through very tender tissue, such as is found in the nectaries of 
flowers and possibly through the small openings which are abun- 
dant in leaves and in the green bark of young twigs. 

Where do these germs originate? is often asked. Because they 
are too small to be seen with the unaided eye this is difficult to 
understand. They should be regarded simply as microscopic 
weeds which live within trees instead of in the soil. We cannot 
always satisfactorily explain where weeds come from, yet they are 
always with us. Waite, of the Department of Agriculture, has 
demonstrated that the germs must be distributed by mechanical 
means, and that insects are very important agents in spreading 
the disease. He found the germs developing in the nectar in the 
blossoms and also found them adhering to the mouth parts of 
honey bees after they had visited infected flowers. Thus it will 
be seen that after one blossom has been infected, the disease is 
spread rapidly, as numerous insects of various kinds visit flower 
after flower. This accounts for the blighting of bearing trees, 
while those which for some reason failed to bloom may be entirely 
free. 

But the more important point in the life history of these germs 



Orchard Pests and their Control 377 

is their mode of living over winter. In the great majority of 
instances the organisms die as the tree takes on its dormant con- 
dition. In the eastern states there is but little evidence of the 
disease being in an active state of growth after the middle of the 
growing season, for the reason that the tissues become hardened. 
These germs thrive best in rapidly growing, succulent tissue. 
But under irrigation trees are often kept growing late in the 
season, much to their detriment, so that blight is sometimes found 
in an active state in October. A definite boundary between live 
and dead bark is an indication that the germs are dead, and this 
is the usual appearance of blighted limbs at the close of the 
season. But a few blighted areas may always be found where 
this separation is not distinct, and it is in these that the germs 
live over winter. The following spring the organisms start into 
growth with the acti\aty of the tree, and a thick juice is exuded, 
which runs down the branch or trunk. This juice contains count- 
less numbers of the germs of pear- blight, and it is from such cases 
of '' hold-over blight " that many new infections ultimately arise. 
If there were no cases of hold-over blight, there would be no 
source of infection, and the disease would be a thing of the 
past. 

It should be easy to understand, with these facts in mind, 
that no spray or wash that might be applied to a tree would 
have the slightest effect in controlling blight. But now that the 
life history of the disease is known some preventive measures may 
be taken which will lessen the amount of damage. 

The removal of all hold-over blight in the fall should be men- 
tioned as of first importance. The trees should be gone over 
carefully in the fall and again in spring, and all blighted limbs cut 
out. It does not seem to be possible in actual practice to detect 
them all, but much good may be accomplished in this way. Dis- 
eased branches should also be cut out during the summer to pre- 
vent further injury to the tree as well as to reduce sources of 
infection. Care should be taken, particularly in the summer, to 
make the cut ten or twelve inches below any sign of discolored 
bark or wood, so that no germs may be left. And as a further 
precaution the knife or saw should be disinfected after each limb 



378 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

is removed so as to kill any germs which might adhere and so 
prevent any possibility of spreading the disease in this way. A 
solution of alcohol, or of corrosive sublimate, one part to one 
thousand, or kerosene, may be used for this purpose. Waite 
reports that he has reduced blight to a minimum in large orchards 
by carefully following this plan. 

We have already noticed that the most vigorous trees are the 
most subject to blight, and we have also seen that as soon as the 
tissues become hardened, the advance of the disease is checked. 
Here, then, is a hint to induce a slow, hard growth by lessening 
the food supply. Water is both a food and the conveyor of food, 
so by regulating the water supply we can in a measure control 
the food supply. 

One of Waite's experiments proves this so completely that we 
will be pardoned for quoting him again. Two potted pear trees, 
both in active growth, were inoculated with pear-blight. After 
the disease had made good progress in both trees, water was with- 
held from One of them during a period of two weeks. It received 
just enough to keep the leaves from wilting, while the other was 
given the normal amount. "As a result, the blight stopped in 
the dried-out tree as soon as the water was withheld and pro- 
gressed no farther, while in the watered tree it kept on until it 
killed the whole top." 

No experiments have been reported which prove the practica- 
bility of withholding water, under orchard conditions, as a means 
of controlling blight. But the writer had an opportunity of 
studying an orchard in the summer of 1904 which had been 
without water for two and one-half years. The effect of this 
enforced drought on checking blight was very marked, and it also 
showed that pear trees can exist in this location for a consider- 
able period without irrigation or cultivation. These results 
would probably be the same in all of the pear-growing sections 
where irrigation is practiced. 

The orchard referred to was located on the side of a gradual 
slope. All other farms and orchards in the vicinity lay below, 
so there was no possibility of seepage water reaching these trees. 
The ditch which supplied the orchard with water broke in the 



Orchard Pests and their Control 379 

fall of 1892, and as money was not available to make the neces- 
sary repairs, the orchards had been abandoned. At the time of 
my visit, June 25, 1904, many of the trees were still in good con- 
dition. This was especially true of the Winesap apple. The 
Jonathan trees were still in condition to be saved, but they were 
less vigorous than the Winesaps. Most of the Ben Davis trees 
were still alive, but the majority of them had put forth few or no 
leaves. About one-half of all of the apple trees of all varieties 
were dead, as well as most of the peach and plum trees. 

But more remarkable was the appearance of a block of eight- 
year-old Bartlett pear trees. Most of the trees were still in a 
fairly vigorous condition, some of the twigs of the previous season's 
growth measuring 14 inches in length. The average of the cur- 
rent season's growth was about four inches, and quite a little 
fruit had set on some of the trees. 

The inspector had visited the orchard each season, and he 
found that in 1892 blight was quite abundant in the pear trees, 
and some of them died from its attacks. The following year 
there was still a good deal of blight, though there was much less 
damage than before. At the time of my visit, June 25, 1904, 
there were but few twigs in which the disease had been active 
that season, and the germs were apparently dead. The dead 
bark of the blighted areas was surrounded by a definite bound- 
ary and had separated from the living bark. 

These results show that the germs of blight do not thrive in 
slow-growing trees, and in fact that the disease may be eradicated 
by prolonged drought. They also show that pear trees will re- 
main in good condition for some time without irrigation or culti- 
vation. But just how far this could be carried in actual practice 
remains to be seen, but one cannot help but surmise that bearing 
pear orchards might be successfully handled with very little 
irrigation, depending upon cultivation or the lack of it to regu- 
late the water supply. 

The form of trees may be modified so as to lessen the injury 
by blight. For this reason an open-centered tree is preferable, 
as three or more main branches take the place of one. The blight- 
ing of the leader very often causes the death of the two-storied 



380 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

tree, whereas with three or more scaffold limbs, one may be re- 
moved without serious loss. 

Blight usually gains entrance to the trunk and larger limbs 
through short fruit spurs and watersprouts. Such growths 
should not be allowed to form on the lower portions of the scaffold 
limbs. Longer fruiting-wood is allowable, but a departure from 
the rules of good pruning will make trees less liable to injury by 
body blight. 

No doubt all growers have noticed that some varieties blight 
worse than others. The Bartlett pear is in this class, while the 
Kieffer is perhaps the most resistant. Sweet apples and the 
crabs are also very susceptible. Experienced growers soon recog- 
nized these differences and have selected their varieties for recent 
plantings accordingly. 

Personally, w^e believe that the pear-growing industry in the 
West is doomed. Even in the few sections where a good many 
acres still remain the disease is gradually spreading, and from 
present appearances it would seem that in a comparatively short 
tinie these orchards will be worthless. This is a condition greatly 
to be deplored, as the pear is one of the finest fruits, and it has 
been a very profitable one to grow. But there is the consolation 
of knowing that with the passing of the pear trees a constant 
source of infection for apple trees is eliminated. 

Insect Enemies of Pear 

Codlin-moth. See under Apple. 
Green Aphis. See under Apple. 
Howard's Scale. See under Plum. 
Pear-slug. See under Cherry. 
San Jose Scale. See under Plum. 



DISEASES AND INSECTS OF THE PLUM 

Fungous Diseases 
Crown-gall. See under Apple. 



Orchard Pests and their Control 381 

Insect Enemies of Plum 

Brown Mite. See under Apple. 

Howard's Scale {Aspidiotus howardi). — There are a number 
of forms of scale insects, none of the females of which* have the 
power of locomotion in the adult stage. In the group to which 
Howard's scale belongs the insects are incased in hard shells, or 
scales, about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. They are 
light to dark gray in color except that the raised, central point 
is orange-red. They are inconspicuous, and trees are often badly 
infested before their presence is discovered. A mass of eggs is 
produced under the scales from which the young emerge through- 
out the summer. These tiny insects crawl about for a few days, 
then settle down and remain stationary during the rest of their 
lives. They injure trees by sucking the juices. They resemble 
closely the San Jose and the Putnam scales, and one is often mis- 
taken for the other. Howard's scale is sometimes injurious, 
but is easily controlled by applications of the lime-sulfur mixture 
during winter or early spring. If it becomes necessary to spray 
for them when the leaves are on, whale-oil soap should be used. 

Pear-tree Slug. See under Cherry. 

Plant-lice. — Give the same treatment as for Green Apple 
Aphis. 

San Jose Scale {Aspidiotus perniciosus) . — This minute insect 
is perhaps the most dreaded pest that has yet appeared in the 
orchards of North America. So severe are its attacks that large 
trees may be killed in from one to three years after being infested. 

This insect resembles closely the Howard scale, and for our 
purpose the description of one will answer for both, as only an 
expert can determine definitely the different species. It should 
be mentioned, however, that the San Jose scale is not nearly so 
particular in regard to its food plants, as it thrives almost equally 
well upon the various members of the rose family, to which most 
of our fruits, both large and small, belong. It may also infest 
some of the forest trees and shrubs. 

Thus far, this insect has not been particularly troublesome in 
this region, and, in fact, it has never been found in some of the 



382 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

states. We hope that this immunity may be due to the inability 
of the scale to thrive in the higher altitudes. 

The remedy for San Jose scale is the same as for the Howard 
scale. 

SPKAY PUMPS AND SPRAYING 

Pumps with metal valves should be used for the appli- 
cation of insecticides or fungicides in liquid form, as the 
materials harden or decompose leather valves so that 
they last but a short time. If bordeaux mixture is to be 
used, all parts of pumps and nozzles that come in contact 
with the mixture must be made of brass, as the chemicals 
very soon destroy iron. Wooden tanks must take the 
place of metal. If the pump is to be used with a tank or 
barrel, it is also important to have some kind of attach- 
ment that will keep the liquid agitated, so that the ma- 
terials in suspension will not settle. A common error is 
to purchase a pump of too small capacity, because it is 
cheaper. A smaller, cheaper pump usually means less 
accomplished in a day with the same help and a poorer 
job, with a greater expenditure of labor. It is often im- 
portant to complete the spraying in as short a time as 
possible after it is begun. To do this, a pump of large 
capacity with two or more leads of hose is necessary. 
The hose to which the nozzles are attached should be as 
light as possible and still have the requisite strength — a 
hose of good quality with heavy wall, but small caliber. 
Bucket pumps are sold by different dealers at prices rang- 
ing between about $2 and $8. They are suitable for use 
among garden vegetables, shrubbery, and all low plants, 
but should not be purchased for orchard work if one has 
more than a very few trees to treat. 



Orchard Pests and their Control 383 




Fig. 98. — Three-year-old Elberta Peach Trees, at Farmington, New 

Mexico. 



384 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

If one has light spraying to do and is without help^ 
the compressed-air sprayers are very convenient. Large 
compressed-air machines that derive their power from 
gearing attached to the wagon wheel are specially adapted 
to the treatment of low plants, but it is doubtful whether 
any spraying machines of this class on the market are 
well adapted to the spraying of large orchard trees where 
the wagon must stand still a large part of the time while 
the spraying is going on. 

When large orchards are to be sprayed, it is a matter 
of necessity and economy to use tanks that will hold 200 
and 300 gallons, and pumps of large capacity. In such 
orchards gasoline power sprayers are most useful and are 
becoming more and more common. Heavier engines are 
now being used, those of two and one-half and three 
horse power being preferred. They are more stable and 
give less trouble than lighter ones. 

The first requisite for a good job of spraying is a pump 
that will give plenty of pressure in the hose. Then, if 
one has a good spraying nozzle and a hquid that is free 
from solid particles of a size to clog the sprayer, there 
will be no difficulty in securing a good spray. 

Barrels and tanks should always be filled through a 
strainer to avoid loss of time and annoyance through the 
clogging of nozzles. 

A very fine spray is most economical of material and 
for an even and thorough distribution is best, and is 
specially useful for the destruction of caterpillars, slugs, 
and other insects that devour the foliage of plants. In 
spraying the first time for the codlin-moth, however, it is 
recommended that the spray be a medium coarse one. 



Orchard Pests and their Control 385 

By this we do not mean that the spray should be com- 
posed mostly of large drops produced by the breaking up 
of a solid stream thrown forcibly into the air, or that it 
should not be a fine mist or fog. A rather coarse ver- 
morel, or a good bordeaux nozzle with a pressure of 100 
or 125 pounds, will furnish such a spray. When spraying 
i i being done to destroy leaf -eating injects, care should be 
taken not to spray too long in one place, as this will result 
in the little drops that collect on the leaves uniting and 
running off, carrying the poison with them. Here, again, 
this rule does not apply to the first treatment for the 
codlin-moth. In that application there should be but 
one end in view, and that to fill every blossom-end or 
calyx-cup with the spray. 

Two types of nozzles are used almost exclusively for 
the distribution of liquids. Perhaps the most popular 
are the bordeaux and the clipper nozzles, which throw a 
flat spray or a sohd stream, and the vermorel nozzles 
which throw a cone-shaped spray which may be graded 
from medium coarse to extremely fine, depending upon 
the pressure and the tip that is used upon the nozzle. 
It is a big advantage in nozzles of this class to have them 
joined to the connecting end so they may be turned at 
any angle to the rod that is desired. 

Any of these nozzles may be used singly or in batteries 
of two or more. 

FORMULAS 

Arsenate of Lead. — This compound contains only about 20 
to 25 per cent of arsenious acid, but has some important ad- 
vantages over the other arsenical compounds. It is so slightly 
soluble in water that it may be used in almost any strength with- 
out injuring foliage, and consequently is least likely to injure 
2c 



386 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

plants which are most sensitive to arsenical poisons. When sus- 
pended in water, this poison is so finely divided that it settles 
slowly, and consequently can be more evenly distributed than 
most arsenical mixtures. Its third point of superiority is in its 
adhesive qualities when applied to foliage. Applications made 
to foliage in the latter part of May at the Colorado Agricultural 
College could be seen upon the leaves the first of September. 
The disadvantage of the poison is its not being quite so quick to 
kill the insects that eat it as are the other arsenites, consequently 
it is necessary to use it in stronger mixtures. 
The formula recommended is as follows : — 

Arsenate of lead 2 to 4 pounds 

Water 100 gallons 

A stomach poison as are all preparations which contain arsenic. 

White Hellebore. — Hellebore, as obtained from drug stores, is 
a light, yellowish brown powder. It is a vegetable stomach 
poison and is obtained by pulverizing the roots of an European 
plant, Veratrum album. It is not as poisonous as the arsenites, 
and consequently it is not as effective in the destruction of most 
insects, but it has its special uses. Slugs, which are the young 
of saw-flies, are particularly susceptible to its effects. The poison- 
ous property is an alkaloid, and it loses its virtue after being ex- 
posed to the air for a few days. For this reason it cannot be 
used where it is likely to remain long before being eaten, and it 
must be kept in tight receptacles and must not be kept too long 
before using. It is often useful for the destruction of insects 
upon plants containing fruit which will soon be used for food. 

Dry applications are easily made upon low plants by making 
a small cheesecloth sack, through which the dust may be sifted 
lightly over the foliage. The best time to apply is in the evening. 

In the wet way use : — 

White hellebore 1 ounce 

Water 3 gallons 

Apply as a spray in the evening. 



Orchard Pests and their Control 387 

Black-leaf Sheep Dip. — A proprietary decoction of tobacco 
which has recently come into prominence as a contact poison in 
combating sucking insects. It is used on dormant trees as strong 
as one gallon to 25 gallons of water. For use during the grow- 
ing season one gallon of Black Leaf to 70 gallons of water is com- 
monly used. 

This preparation is being generally adopted as the best poison 
for combating the different forms of aphis. 

Whale-oil or Tree Soap. — For ordinary plant lice one pound 
of the soap to eight or ten gallons of water is sufficient if the ap- 
plication is thorough. Double this strength will not injure most 
plants and is often required to destroy more resistant insects. 
For scale lice, like the San Jose scale, for example, it is used as 
strong as one pound, or even two pounds to a gallon of water. 
These strongest applications can only be used in the winter or 
early spring when the trees are dormant. The soap is more 
effectual if applied when quite hot. The soap solutions kill by 
contact only. 

Lime-sulfur Wash. — This wash, when properly made, is one 
of the most effectual applications for the destruction of scale in- 
sects and eggs of the brown mite by contact, particularly in dry 
climates. It should be used only in the winter or spring, while 
the trees are dormant. The ingredients may be in the following 
proportions : — 

Lump lime (good) 20 pounds 

Sulfur ^ .... 15 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

Slake tjie lime, preferably with hot water, in an iron kettle or 
a barrel, and while slaking, slowly add the sulfur and stir it in. 
Then boil over a good fire or by means of a Jet of steam in about 
one-half the required amount of water (25 gallons) for 45 minutes 
or until a dark red color is obtained. 

The need of a fungicide to replace bordeaux mixture has led 
to experiments with various sulfur mixtures. A recent bulletin 
of the United States Department of Agriculture reports favor- 



388 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

able results from the use of a self-boiled lime-sulfur mixture. It 
is made as follows: Place 15 pounds of fresh stone lime in a 50- 
gallon barrel, and pour two or three gallons of cold water over it. 
Immediately add the sulfur and another pail of water. Stir as 
necessary, to prevent burning and add more water if the mass 
gets too thick to stir; but as little water as possible should be 
used. When the boiling ceases, dilute with water to make 50 gal- 
lons, stir thoroughly, strain, and the mixture is ready for use. 

The Rex preparation has given good results in our experiments 
in controlling grape mildew, so that there is no doubt but that 
the self-boiled mixture should give equally as good and perhaps 
better results. 

Tobacco. — Tobacco has long been used in one way or another 
for the destruction of insects. Its chief use seems to be for the 
destruction of lice. When slowly burnt, the smoke may be utilized 
for the destruction of lice on plants in greenhouses or window 
gardens. In the form of a fine dust it is often effectual in ridding 
plants of flea-beetles, and in the form of dust or stems is one of 
the best remedies we have for woolly aphis on the roots of apple 
trees. 

A decoction made by boiling tobacco dust or stems in water, 
in the proportion of a pound to three or four gallons, is destructive 
to plant lice and to lice upon cattle. Tobacco very finely powdered 
may also be used in the dry form against the same insects. It is 
best to first spray the insects with water. 

Bordeaux Mixture. — Formula A. 

Copper sulfate (blue stone or blue vitriol) .... 4 pounds 

Quick lime 4 pounds 

Water 45 gallons 

Formula B. 

Copper sulfate 2 pounds 

Quick lime 4 pounds 

Water 45 gallons 

Only fresh unslaked lime should be used. It should be slaked 
in water in a separate vessel, diluted to a thin whitewash, and 



Orchard Pests and their Control 389 

strained through a strainer with openings the size of a pinhead. 
This prevents the clogging of the nozzles with any of the coarse 
material left after slaking. The copper sulfate should be dis- 
solved in warm water if wanted for immediate use. It may be 
dissolved in a considerable quantity of cold water by suspending 
it in a sack just beneath the surface. If to be used in large 
quantities, it is well to make up a stock solution by dissolving 
fifty pounds in twenty-five gallons of water. Keep well covered 
to prevent evaporation. Two gallons of this solution contain the 
four pounds of copper sulfate called for in Formula A, or one 
gallon contains the two pounds called for in Formula B. The re- 
quired amount of this solution should be diluted to at least thirty 
gallons before the lime water is added. The lime may be slaked 
in large quantities, in which condition it williceep well all summer, 
and the amount of lime water or paste required may be deter- 
mined by a chemical test. 

For this test potassium ferrocyanide may be secured of any 
druggist and prepared for use by dissolving in ten times its bulk 
of water. A quantity of lime water is then added to the diluted 
copper solution, stirred well, and a drop of cyanide dropped upon 
the surface. If it gives a reddish brown color to the mixture, 
more lime must be added and the test repeated until no reaction 
occurs. This indicates that all harmful acids of the copper 
have been neutralized, and the mixture is ready for use. Red 
litmus paper may be used and lime added until the solution turns 
the paper to a blue color. 

Bordeaux mixture is used in combating plant diseases. It 
has no effect on insects, except that it acts as a repellent. It 
has been used successfully in this way in ridding potatoes and 
other vegetables of flea-beetles. 

Bordeaux mixture deteriorates rapidly and should be used as 
soon as prepared. While being sprayed it requires constant 
stirring. In the preparation of the mixture no metal vessels or 
tools other than copper or brass should be used. Apply to apple 
and to pear trees only on bright days, otherwise the mixture is 
likely to injure both fruit and foliage. 

Whitewash. — Whitewash is much used in California to protect 



390 Fruit-growing in Arid Regions 

trees, both young and old, from injury by sun-scald. The stubs 
made in grafting are also protected in the same manner. 
The California formula is as follows: — 

Quicklime 30 pounds 

Tallow . 4 pounds 

Salt 5 pounds 

Water enough to make mixture flow well 

This makes a tenacious whitewash not easily washed off by 
rains or removed by other means. 

Grafting-waxes. — Several formulas are given for the prepara- 
tion of grafting- waxes. There are the waxes applied warm with 
a brush and those applied cold, the heat of the hands being suffi- 
cient to make them pliable. With the first it is necessary to have 
special equipment to keep the wax melted in the field, and this 
generally limits its use to a few professional grafters who are pre- 
pared to use it. The cold waxes are prepared for use by melting 
together the ingredients, pouring the melted material in cold 
water, and pulling it like taffy until it becomes a buff color. It 
can be kept from season to season by immersing it in water. 
The common formula given for the preparation of this wax is 
four pounds of resin, two pounds of beeswax, and one pound of 
tallow. Paraffin may be substituted for the beeswax in this 
formula; although it seems that the resulting wax is hardly as 
durable, it serves the purpose very well. By increasing the amount 
of resin in the above formula to six pounds, it makes a very good 
hard wax for warm application. Another good wax to be applied 
warm is prepared by melting together three pounds of resin, one 
pound of beeswax, and one pint of raw linseed oil. 



INDEX 



Air drainage, 14, 

Alfalfa, influenced by fertility, 185 ; 
ways of killing, 35. 

Alkali, black, 23; drainage, 23; 
injury due to, 56; kinds of, 22; 
source of, 22; virgin soil, 22; 
white, 23. 

Altitude, early bearing in relation 
to, 99; effects on fruit growing, 
13. 

Aphis, see Green Aphis, Woolly 
Aphis. 

Apple, Arkansas, 231, 235; Arkan- 
sas Black, 232, 235; arsenical 
poisoning, 360, 369; Ben Davis, 
87, 226, 230, 235; blight, 87, 359; 
crown gall, 82, 359 ; early variety, 
234; Esopus (Spitz enberg) , 232, 
235; fruit spur of, 70; grading, 
277; Grimes, 229, 236; hardy, for 
high altitude, 234; aphis, green, 
332; aphis, woolly, 364; codling- 
moth, 368; Jonathan, 226, 228, 
236; pruning of, 117; Mcintosh, 
232, 236; mUdew, 360; Missouri, 
44, 47, 229, 236; Newtown Pip- 
pin, 230, 238; packing, 276; pick- 
ing, 257; pruning of, 121; Ralls, 
232; Rome, 44, 226, 229, 237; 
root rot, 360; varieties, de- 
scription of, 235; Wagner, 44; 
White Pearmain, 232, 237; Wine- 
sap, 229, 238; pruning of, 121; 
Winter Banana, 232, 238; Wrap- 
ping, 282, 308; Yellow Newtown, 
Pippin, pruning of, 123. 



Apricot, blight, 370; branch bud, 
76; fruit bud, 76; fruit buds, 
character of, 124; packing, 283; 
picking, 260; propagation, 178; 
pruning, 123; varieties, descrip- 
tion of, 239. 

Arkansas Valley, 13. 

Arsenate of lead, 385. 

Arsenical poisoning of trees, 360, 
369. 

Associations, benefits of, 303; fruit 
growers', 302; Grand Junction, 
302; Hood River, 307; state, 
315. 

Baby beef and fruit growing, 214. 

Bailey, L. H., quoted, 86, 181. 

Black leaf, 387. 

Blight, 359, 370; see also Apple 
BHght, Pear Blight, etc. 

Bordeaux mixture, 388. 

Boxes, 275, 278. 

Branches, ages of, 66; leaf scars 
on, 67. 

Brown mite, 367. 

Budding, orchard trees, 152. 

Buds, apple, 69; branch, 70; fruit, 
see Fruit Bud; scales, 66; ter- 
minal, 68. 

Cambium, 59. 

Canon breeze, see Frost. 

Capillary water, 105. 

Carbon dioxid, action of, 195; 

amount required by trees, 64; 

strong solvent, 195. 



391 



392 



Index 



Cherry, adaptation, 239; branch 

bud, 77; fruit buds, 77; morello, 

242; packing, 284; picking, 260; 

propagation, 178; slug, 370; 

varieties, description of, 241. 
ChlorophyU, 64. 
Cion wood, 160. 
Climate: see also Altitude, Frost, 

Mountains; effect on organic 

matter, 16. 
Codling-moth, 316. 
Color, influence of soil on, 228. 
Colorado, horticultural history, 

early, 6. 
Commercial fertilizers, 188. 
Commission men, 303. 
Cooperation, necessity of, 303. 
Core rot of Jonathan, 252. 
Cover crops, 190. 
Cross fertilization, planning for, 

47. 
Crown gall, 82, 359. 

Dairy and fruit growing, 216. 
Decay, process of, 194. 
Drainage and alkali, 22. 
Dwarf apples, 174. 
Dwarf pears, 176. 

Fertility: alfalfa, effect of, on, 185; 
organic matter important, 183, 
190; soU exhaustion, 180, 187; 
soU not inexhaustible, 184. 

Fertilizers, effects on potatoes, 189. 

FUlers, 46. 

Formulae, 385. 

Free water, 205. 

French crab stock, 173. 

Frost, blister, 326; canon breeze, 
effects of, 14; injuries from, 325; 
injuries to bud, 326; protection, 
334; russet, 325; second crop 
bloom caused by, 330; young 
fruit injured by, 328. 

Frost fighting, devices for, 334; 
fuels for, 340; retarding blooming 
period, 337; smudging, 338. 



Fruit: see also Names of various 
fruits; factors determining quality 
of, 228; keeping qualities in high 
altitudes, 251; small farms the 
rule, 11. 

Fruit bud, axillary of apple, 71; 
axillary of pear, 71; terminal of 
apple, 71; terminal of pear, 71. 

Fruit growers' associations, 302; 
management, 309. 

Fruit growing, commercial, recent, 
11. 

Fruit spur, apple, 68; bearing 
habit, 71; bearing habit may be 
changed, 71 ; formation of, 93 ; 
intermittent bearing of, 73; scar 
on, 70. 

Furrows, character of, 207. 

Giant powder, subsoil loosened by, 
34. 

Grafting, cion wood, 160; methods, 
151; northern spy and woolly 
aphis, 148; old trees, 150; reasons 
for, 147; seasons for, 158; stone 
fruits, questionable, 148; varieties 
to avoid: Duchess, Hyslop, Mis- 
souri, Wagner, Wealthy, 150; 
young trees, 165. 

Grafting wax, 390. 

Grand Junction Association, 302. 

Greasewood land, 17. 

Green, W. J., on Ohio fruit culture, 
179. 

Green aphis, 362. 

Green manures, benefits of, 190. 

Gypsum, rare, 19. 

Headden, Wm. P., quoted, 362. 
Hellebore, 386. 
Hoed crops, 183. 
Hogs and fruit growing, 218. 
Hood River Association, 270, 307. 
Horses and fruit growing, 213. 
Horticultural history, early, 1. 
Howard scale, 381, 
Humus, 194. 



Index 



393 



Insects, biting, 357; injurious, see 
Orchard Pests; sucking, 358. 

Interplanting, see Fillers. 

Irrigation, at blooming period, 203; 
length of time, 210; methods, 
206; time of, 203. 

Irrigations, number of, 210. 

Jonathan, core rot of, 252. 
Judson, L. B., quoted, 270. 

Keeping qualities of fruit, color of, 
228; superior in high altitudes, 
251. 

Land, leveling, 29; raw, 30; settling, 

30. 
Leaf curl of peach, 355. 
Leaves, chlorophyll, 64; starch, 64; 

stomata, 62. 
Lime and sulfur wash, 387. 

Manure, see Green Manure, Stable 

Manure. 
Marketing fruit, 302. 
Marl, common, 19; effects on trees, 

19. 
Marly soU, orchards on, 19; rosette 

of apple on, 19; shade crops on, 

19. 
Mildew, see Apple Mildew. 
Moore, J., quoted, 313, 
Mormons, 4. 
Mountains, protection afforded by, 

13. 
Mountain valleys, fruit growing in, 

14. 

Night breezes, see Frost. 

Nitrifjdng bacteria, cultures of, 198. 

Nitrogen, 188. 

Northern Spy roots, how secured, 
174. 

Nursery stock, agent for, 40; 
budded trees, 38; care of, 40; 
first class, 37; French crab- 
stock, 173; peach, June-budded, 



39; June buds of, 39; trees, age 
of, 38, 90; inspection of, 83; root- 
grafted, 38 ; shriveled, 41 ; yearling 
trees best, 38, 89. 

Orchard land, plowing, importance 
of, 199. 

Orchard pests, 355; apple mildew, 
360; brown mite, 367; codling- 
moth, 368; crown gall, 359; 
green aphis, 362; Howard scale, 
381; peach leaf curl, 355; peach 
mildew, 372; peach twig borer, 
374; peach yellows, 372; pear 
blight, 375; pear tree slug, 370; 
root rots, 360; San Jose scale, 
381; woolly aphis, 364. 

Orchards, commercial, 37; crop- 
ping, the, 221 ; growing small fruits 
in, 223; irrigation of young, 
204. 

Organic matter, 183, 195; climatic 
effect on, 16; exhaustion of, 
183; lack of, in soU, 16; texture 
of soil improved by, 16. 

Overproduction, 251. 

Packmg fruit, 267. 

Peach, branch buds, 74; dehorning, 
132; diseases of, 317; fruit buds, 
74; fruiting wood of, 130; grad- 
ing by machine, 289; insects 
injurious to, 374; leaf curl, 355; 
low-headed, 104; mildew, 372; 
packing, 286; propagation, 177; 
pruning, 102, 127; illustrated, 
104; soils for, 242; summer prun- 
ing, 130; twig borer, 374; varieties, 
description of, 243; winter in- 
jury of, 131; yellows, 372. 

Pear, blight, 375; to avoid blight, 
87; insects injurious to, 380; 
propagation, 176; pruning, 133; 
tree slug, 381; varieties, descrip-. 
tion of, 345. 

Phosphorus, 188. 

Picking fruit, 250. 



394 



Index 



Plant food, elements of, 187. 

Plants, leguminous, 197, 

Plum, propagation, 178; San Jose 
scale, 381; varieties, description 
of, 247. 

Potassium, 188. 

Potatoes, alfalfa sod for, 189. 

Poultry and fruit growing, 220. 

Propagation, 173. 

Pruning, annual, 99; apple trees, 
88, 117; apricot, 123; balance 
between roots and top, 81; bear- 
ing habit and, 113; bearing trees, 
111; Ben Davis, 87; blight, in- 
fluence of pruning on, 87; buds, 
relation to, 113; cherry, 125; 
early bearing in relation to, 93; 
effects on fruit spur, 71; form, 
apple tree altered by, 117; Gano, 
87; height of head, 84; how to 
cut a branch, 89, 113; in rela- 
tion to buds, 113; necessity of, 
111; neglected, 122; open cen- 
tered tree, 118; peach, young, 
102; pear, 133; pear blight, to 
avoid, 87; physiology of, 112; 
plum, 139; pyramidal form, 87; 
requirements of different varieties, 
117; scaffold limbs, 88; shy 
bearers, 123, 135; summer, 125, 
130, 137; summer pruning of 
pear, 137; stub cut, 89; thinning 
fruit by, 141; tools, 115; vase 
form, 87; winter, 99, 113; wounds, 
114. 

Quince, bearing habit, 138; prun- 
ing, 138. 

Root hairs, 54. 
Root rots, 360. 
Roots, 53; exposure to air, 51,82; 

pruning, 51, 82. 
Rosette, cause of, 19. 

Sage brush land, 17. 
San Jose scale, 381. 



Seepage, due to clay, 21: due to 
excessive irrigation, 22; due to 
shale, 21. 

Shade crops, 184; marly soil on, 18. 

Sieve tubes, 59. 

Sinking land, 20. 

Small fruits, marketing, 308. 

Smudging, see Frost Fighting. 

Soil surveys, 23. 

Soils, adobe, 15; alkaH, see Alkali; 
cement, 20; depth of, 15, 19; 
influence of color on, 196; irri- 
gation of varieties, 206; marly, 
difficulty of growth in, 19; or- 
ganic matter, lack of, 16; prepa- 
ration important, 28; puddling 
of, 16; sandstone, 15; shallow, 
19; shallow rooted trees in, 19; 
solutions in, 55; surveys, 23; 
varieties in, 15, 28; volcanic ash, 
17. 

Spraying, apparatus, 382; formulae, 
385. 

Stable maniire, 193. 

Stanger, J. S., quoted, 6. 

Starch, 64. 

Stems, 56. 

Stomata, 62. 

Stone, W. G. M., 1. 

Storage, prompt, important, 252. 

Subsoil, importance of, 18. 

Sun scald, 84; protection of grafted 
trees from, 160. 

Survey, see Soil Surveys.' 

Tanglefoot bands, 367. 

Thinning, apples, 143; fruit, 141; 

peaches, 145; pears, 145. 
Tillage, benefits of, 181; overdone, 

179; winter cultivation, 182; 

tilth, 182. 
Tobacco, 388. 
Top working, budding, see Budding; 

grafting, see Grafting young trees, 

165. 
Trees, age of, 38, 89; bark, 59; 

carbon dioxid required, 64; gir- 



Index 



395 



dling, 60; heart wood inactive, 60; 
heeling in, 40; injury from care- 
lessness, 82; inspection of nurs- 
ery stock, 82; low-headed, 84; 
pruning when transplanted, 81; 
root pruning, 51, 82; selection, 
37; shallow-rooted, 15, 19; water 
required, 63. 

Varieties, see also Names of Fruits; 
adaptation to soil, 227; early 
apple, 234; for local market, 234; 
hardy for high altitudes, 234; 



number of, 37; numbers to plant, 
234; testing, 226. 

Water, leveling with, 31; vessels, 

51. 
Webster, Daniel, speech, 2. 
Whale oil soap, 387. 
Whitewash, 389. 
Wind breaks, 24; importance of, 

25; location of, 25; trees for, 26. 
Winter killing and irrigation, 204. 
Woolly aphis, 82, 364. 
Worthless area, 2. 



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On Production of New Plants 

L. H. Bailey's Plant-Breeding i 25 net 

L. H. Bailey's The Survival of the Unlike 2 00 net 

L. H. Bailey's The Evolution of Our Native Fruits . . . . 2 00 net 

W. S. Harwood's New Creations in Plant Life . . . • i 75 net 

On Garden-Making 

L. H. Bailey's Practical Garden Book i 00 net 

L. H. Bailey's Garden-Making i 50 net 

L. H. Bailey's Vegetable-Gardening i 50 net 

L. H. Bailey's Horticulturist's Rule Book . . . . . . 75 net 

L. H. Bailey's Forcing Book i 25 net 

A. French's Book of Vegetables . . , , , . . . i 75 net 



BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE - Cb«fmae</ 

On Fruit-Gr owing, etc. 

L. H. Bailey's Nursery Book . . ^ i 50 net 

L. H. Bailey's Fruit-Growing i 50 net 

L. H. Bailey's The Pruning Book i 50 net 

F. W. Card's Bush Fruits . i 50 net 

On the Care of Live Stock 

Nelson S. Mayo's The Diseases of Animals i 50 net 

W. H. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals . . . . . . i 50 net 

I. P. Roberts' The Horse i 25 net 

George C. Watson's Farm Poultry i 25 net 

On Dairy Work 

Henry H. Wing's Milk and its Products . . . . . . 1 50 net 

C. M. Aikman's Milk i 25 net 

Harry Snyder's Dairy Chemistry i 00 net 

W. D. Frost's Laboratory Guide in Elementary Bacteriology . . i 60 net 

I. P. Sheldon's The Farm and the Dairy i 00 net 

On Economics and Organization 

L. H. Bailey's The State and the Farmer i 25 net 

Henry C. Taylor's Agricultural Economics 1 25 net 

I. P. Roberts' The Farmer's Business Handbook . . . . i 25 net 

George T. Fairchild's Rural Wealth and Welfare . . . . i 25 net 

S, E. Sparling's Business Organization i 25 net 

In the Citizen's Library. Includes a chapter on Farming 

Kate V. St. Maur's A Self-supporting Home i 75 net 

Kate V. St. Maur's The Earth's Bounty i 75 net 

On Everything Agricultural 

L. H. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture : 
Vol. I. Farms, Climates, and Soils. 
Vol. II. Farm Crops. 
Vol. III. Farm Animals. 
Vol. IV. The Farm and the Community. 

To be complete in four royal 8vo volumes, with over 2000 illustrations. 
Price of sets : Cloth, $ 20 net ; half-morocco, $ 32 net. 



For further information as to any of the above, 
address the publishers 



PUBLISHED BY 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York 



OF INTEREST TO ANY GARDENER 



A Woman's Hardy Garden 

By HELENA R. ELY Illustrated Cloth i2mo $1.75 net 

" Mrs. Ely gives copious details of the cost of plants, the exact dates of 
planting, the number of plants required in a given space for beauty of effect 
and advantage to free growth, the protection needed from sun and frost, 
the precautions to take against injury from insects, the satisfaction to be 
expected from different varieties of plants in the matter of luxuriant bloom 
and length of time for blossoming, and much information to be appreciated 
only by those who have raised a healthy garden by the slow teachings of 
personal experience." — Aew York Times. 

Another Hardy Garden Book 

By HELENA R. ELY lUustrated Cloth izmo $1.75 net 

" The great value of 'Another Hardy Garden Book ' lies in the fact that it 
deals with the conditions of soil and climate to be found in this part of the 
country, it narrates actual experiences in a garden not so far beyond the 
average city dweller as to discourage him, and it gives just the advice and 
information needed by the amateur gardener of moderate means and lim- 
ited responsibilities." — Philadelphia Ledger. 

A Self-Supporting Home 

By KATE V. SAINT MAUR 

Illustrated Cloth i2mo $1.75 fjet 
" An interesting narrative and a ver\' handy and practical guide to life in 
the country on the basis of a small income. The common-sense practi- 
cality which gives the book its value, is attributable to the fact that these are 
actual experiences described here." — The Richmond TiJues- Despatch. 

The Earth's Bounty 

By KATE V. SAINT MAUR 

Illustrated Cloth i2nto $1.7 S net 
" After reading Mrs. Saint Maur's clever book one feels a longing for the 
healthful simplicity of the country life and the rewards that it holds out to 
human thrift and industry. The book is full of practical, accurate business 
information which should make it invaluable to any one anxious to try 
farming for profit." — Philadelphia Ledger. 

A Book of Vegetables and Garden Herbs 

By ALLEN FRENCH Illustrated Cloth i2mo $1.75 net 



PUBLISHED BY 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York 



my 37 1910 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 
MAY ZJ lijjii 



